Si les antibiotiques ont amélioré le pronostic des maladies infectieuses, l’apparition de résistances importantes et les manipulations génétiques volontaires peuvent faire craindre l’émergence de pathogènes très virulents et résistants aux antibiotiques recommandés. Aussi, la multidrug résistance (MDR) est devenue un problème majeur pour traiter des infections impliquant des bactéries à Gram-négatif. La surexpression des mécanismes d’efflux contribue largement au phénotype de multi-résistance aux antibiotiques et l’inhibition de ces mécanismes intéresse donc de plus en plus le monde de la recherche.Les phénothiazines font partie des molécules les plus prometteuses du 20e siècle. La présence d’un substituant en position C-2 sur le noyau tricyclique et celle d’une chaine alkyl aminée en position N-10 se sont révélées être critiques pour des activités de type neuroleptique, antihistaminique et anthelminthique. Une activité anti-MDR a également été mise en évidence, notamment contre les cancers et la tuberculose. Le mécanisme par lequel ces molécules inhiberaient l’efflux est cependant encore mal connu. Différents dérivés de la phénothiazine ont été synthétisés afin de comprendre ce mécanisme et de dégager les propriétés physico-chimiques mises en jeu chez Burkholderia pseudomallei. Cette bactérie à Gram-négatif, responsable de la mélioïdose, est classée parmi les agents potentiels du bioterrorisme. Elle est en effet extrêmement pathogène et présente une sensibilité très réduite à une majorité de classes d’antibiotiques. L’activité des phénothiazines a été évaluée par la technique Etest® sur Burkholderia thailandensis, modèle d’étude non-pathogène. / If antibiotic drugs improved the prognosis of infectious diseases, the appearance of antimicrobial resistance and deliberate genetic modifications could be followed by the worrying emergence of highly virulent pathogens resistant to usual antibiotics. Thus, Multi-Drug Resistance (MDR) became a major problem to treat infections involving Gram negative bacteria. The overexpression of efflux mechanisms contributes to a great extent to antibiotic resistance and the inhibition of these mechanisms increasingly interest research areas.Phenothiazines are the most promising molecules of the 20th century. The presence of substituent in C-2 position on the tricyclic structure and the one of alkyl amino chain in N-10 position proved their critical activity as neuroleptic, antihistaminic and antihelmintic drugs. An anti-MDR activity has also been put into evidence against cancers and tuberculosis, but the mechanism by which molecules would inhibit efflux is not well known yet. Different phenothiazine derivatives have been synthesized in order to better understand this mechanism and to draw the physicochemical properties involved in Burkholderia pseudomallei. This Gram negative bacterium is responsible of melioidosis and classified as potential bioterrorism infectious agent. This bacterium is indeed extremely pathogenic and has a very low susceptibility to most classes of antibiotics. The activity of phenothiazine derivatives was evaluated using the Etest® method in Burkholderia thailandensis, the non-pathogenic study model.

Introdução: a infecção hospitalar tem se tornado um problema de saúde pública, no Brasil e na maioria dos países do mundo, sobretudo devido ao aumento gradativo da resistência dos microrganismos aos antimicrobianos. Nos pacientes que apresentam deficiências no sistema imunológigo como os indivíduos que vivem com o vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV) ou com a síndrome da imunodeficiência adquirida (aids) o quadro clínico dessas infecções pode se tornar extremamente grave, aumentando a morbimortalidade. Objetivo: determinar a prevalência de microorganismos gram-negativos em indivíduos com HIV/aids internados num hospital escola do interior paulista. Material e Método: trata-se de um estudo de corte transversal, aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da Escola de Enfermagem de Ribeirão Preto da Universidade de São Paulo. No período de 01 agosto de 2011 a 28 de fevereiro de 2013, foram abordados 365 indivíduos internados em duas unidades especializadas de um hospital escola público do interior paulista, sendo a população do presente estudo composta por 220 sujeitos. Os dados sociodemográficos, clínicos e hábitos de saúde foram obtidos por meio de entrevista individual e consulta aos prontuários. Coletou-se também amostras de saliva e swab nasal nas primeiras 24 horas de internação, as quais foram processadas pelo Laboratório de Microbiologia do referido hospital. Os dados foram inicialmente digitados em planilha do Microsoft Office Excel for Windows 2011, realizada dupla digitação e validação dos dados, a fim de identificar possíveis erros de digitação. Posteriormente, a planilha definitva foi transportada para o programa Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS), versão 17.0 for Windows, onde foi estruturado o banco de dados e realizada análise estatística. Resultados: a prevalência de microorganismos gram negativos nos indivíduos com HIV/aids foi de 15,4% independente do sítio onde foi isolado. Pseudomonas aeruginosa foi o micoorganismo mais frequentemente isolado tanto na saliva (50%), quanto no swab nasal (37,5%), seguida por Klebsiella pneumoniae (30,7%) isolada somente na saliva. Em relação aos aspectos clínicos 29,4% dos indivíduos com amostras positivas para microorganismos gram negativos tinham carga viral acima de 1000.000 cópias,ml, CD4 menor que 200 céluas/mm3 (50%), tiveram internações prévias (52,9%), estavam em uso de antimicrobiano (64,7%), não usavam antirretrovirais (52,9%) e tinham algum procedimento invasivo no momento da coleta (67,6%). Nenhum microorganismo apresentou resistência aos antimicrobianos. Conclusão: a prevalência de microorganismos gram-negativos foi maior na saliva (11,8%) que no swab nasal (3,6%), indicando que coletar amostras de mais de um sítio pode favorecer a identificação de indivíduos colonizados e ou infectados / Introduction: the hospital infection has become a public health problem in Brazil and in most countries of the world, mainly due to the gradual increase of resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics. In patients who have deficiencies in the immune system such as individuals living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), the clinical picture of these infections can become very serious, increasing morbidity and mortality. Objective: to determine the prevalence of gram-negative microorganisms in individuals with HIV/AIDS hospitalized at a teaching hospital in the interior of São Paulo state. Material and Method: this is a cross-sectional study, approved by the Ethics Research Committee of the University of São Paulo at Ribeirão Preto College of Nursing. In the period from August 01, 2011 to February 28, 2013, 365 individuals hospitalized in two specialized units of a public teaching hospital in the interior of São Paulo state were approached, and the study population was comprised of 220 subjects. The sociodemographic and clinical data and health habits were obtained through individual interviews and medical records. Saliva samples and nasal swabs were collected in the first 24 hours of admission, which were processed by the Microbiology Laboratory of the hospital. The instrument variables were coded and cataloged in a dictionary (codebook). The data were initially recorded in a Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet for Windows 2011, performed a double entry and data validation in order to identify possible typing errors. Subsequently, the final worksheet was transported to the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 17.0 for Windows, in which database was structured and statistical analysis was performed. Results: the prevalence of gram-negative microorganisms in individuals with HIV/AIDS was 15.4% regardless of where it was isolated. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most frequently isolated microorganisms both in saliva (50%) and in nasal swabs (37.5%), followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae (30.7%) isolated only in saliva. In regard to clinical aspects, 29.4% of individuals with positive samples for gram-negative microorganisms had viral load above 1000,000 copies/ml, CD4 less than 200 cells/mm3 (50%), had previous hospitalizations (52.9%), were using antimicrobials (64.7%), did not use antiretroviral drugs (52.9%) and had some invasive procedure at the time of collection (67.6%). No microorganism was resistant to antimicrobials. Conclusion: the prevalence of gram-negative microorganisms was higher in saliva (11.8%) than in nasal swabs (3.6%), indicating that collecting samples from more than one location may facilitate the identification of individuals colonized and/or infected

As Stenotrophomonas são comumente encontradas no trato respiratório de pacientes com doenças pulmonares crônicas e também na rizosfera de plantas. Esse gênero apresenta resistência a diversos antibióticos, promove o crescimento de plantas e algumas espécies apresentam a capacidade de fixar o nitrogênio atmosférico. O Multi Locus Sequence Analysis (MLSA) é uma metodologia baseada em genes constitutivos para definição e alocação taxonômica de novas espécies. O objetivo geral do presente trabalho foi caracterizar taxonomicamente uma coleção ampla de Stenotrophomonas composta por isolados endófitos, linhagens-tipo e de referência. Para tanto, foi estabelecido um sistema de classificação e identificação de Stenotrophomonas por meio de MLSA. Foi possível através da metodologia de MLSA definir 9 novas espécies, detectar a presença de um novo gênero e estabelecer um sistema online de taxonomia para Stenotrophomonas. / The genus Stenotrophomonas is found in the respiratory treatment of patients with chronic pulmonary and also in the rizhosfera of plants. It presents resistance to several antibiotics, promotes the growth of plants and some species present the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The Multi Locus Sequence Analysis (MLSA) is a methodology based on constitutive genes for definition and taxonomic allocation of new species. The general objective of the present work was to characterize a wide collection constituted by Stenotrophomonas from isolated endophytic, type and reference strains. In such a way, a system of classification and identification of Stenotrophomonas by means of MLSA was established. It was possible through the MLSA methodology to define 9 new species, to detect the presence of a new genus and to establish an online system for Stenotrophomonas taxonomy.

Methylobacterium mesophilicum SR1.6/6 é uma bactéria endofítica isolada de ramo de citros previamente esterilizado superficialmente. Esta bactéria possui a capacidade de associar-se com uma ampla variedade de espécies e tecidos de plantas, principalmente nas raízes, mediado pela formação de biofilme e superfícies do hipocótilo de plântulas in vitro. Este trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento e a aplicação de um modelo para o estudo in vitro da associação entre esta bactéria e plântulas de soja. Metodologias de genômica e transcriptômica foram aplicadas para a obtenção do draft genômico desta bactéria e de um amplo perfil de sequências expressas, obtidas em dois tratamentos distintos; i) células de biofilme células bacterianas aderidas às raízes das plântulas removidas por sonicação, e ii) células planctônicas células bacterianas em suspensão (i.e. interagindo somente com exsudados radiculares). Os dados genômicos obtidos por 454-pirosequenciamento resultaram em uma cobertura de 37 vezes o tamanho do genoma e geraram 242 contigs. Entre estes, 187 contigs grandes representaram 96% do genoma (tamanho estimado de 6.8 Mb), com um conteúdo GC de 69.5%. Considerando a análise da expressão gênica, um procedimento para monitorar a aderência das células bacterianas às raízes das plântulas foi realizado por meio de microscopia eletrônica de varredura de amostras de raízes coletadas durante o experimento (i.e. 24, 48 e 72h após a inoculação). As células bacterianas obtidas em cada tratamento foram inicialmente submetidas à extração de RNA total, seguida de um processo de enriquecimento de mRNA e sequenciamento por meio da tecnologia de 454-pirosequenciamento (RNA-Seq). O amplo perfil de expressão gênica obtido foi mapeado no draft genômico, resultando em um total de 1.930 clusters gênicos. Posteriormente, estes clusters foram filtrados de acordo com sua abundância e ocorrência diferencial em cada tratamento, resultando em 280 genes diferencialmente expressos. Funções relacionadas ao metabolismo de etanol/metanol, divisão celular, resposta ao estresse oxidativo, produção de sideróforos, biossíntese de peptidoglicanos e hopanóides foram induzidas nas células bacterianas aderidas às raízes das plântulas, enquanto que genes relacionados ao metabolismo essencial das células foram observados principalmente nos tratamentos controle e planctônico. Estes dados fornecem uma base para estudos relacionados a mecanismos moduladores da interação bactériaplanta, distinguindo significativamente os tratamentos biofilme e planctônico, mostrando assim que o contato físico é essencial para o sucesso da interação em estudo. Por fim, estas análises permitiram uma ampla visualização de perfis de expressão gênica desta bactéria, utilizando o draft genômico primeiramente obtido como base para o estudo desta interação com a planta hospedeira. Estudos futuros podem ser desenvolvidos visando caracterizar os mecanismos adaptativos desta bactéria, como seu metabolismo metilotrófico e outros metabolismos específicos, os quais podem dar suporte ao comportamento endofítico deste organismo. / Methylobacterium mesophilicum strain SR1.6/6 is an endophytic bacterium, which has originally been isolated from surface-sterilized healthy citrus branch. This bacterium is able to associate with a range of plant species, rather in the roots, mediated by a biofilm structure, and in hypocotyl surfaces of in vitro seedlings. The aim of the present study was the development and application of a model to study in vitro the association between this bacterium and soybean seedlings. Genomic and transcriptomic approaches were applied resulting a draft of this bacterium genome and a broad profile of mapped mRNA sequences obtained in two different treatments; i) biofilm cells root adhered bacterial cells were removed by sonication, and ii) planktonic cells bacteria cells in suspension (i.e. interacting only with root exudates). Genomic data, obtained by 454-pyrosequencing have had an average depth of 37-fold coverage of the genome and yielded 242 contigs. Among these, 187 large contigs represented 96% of the genome sequence (estimate size of 6.8 Mb) with a GC content of 69.5%. Concerning the gene expression survey, the process to monitor the adherence of bacteria cells to the roots was performed by scanning electron microscopy of roots collected along the experiment (i.e. 24, 48 and 72 hours after inoculation). Bacterial cells obtained in each treatment were firstly submitted to RNA extraction, followed by mRNA enrichment and RNA-Seq using 454-pyrosequencing technology. The broad gene expression profile obtained was mapped into the drafted genome, resulting in a total of 1.930 gene clusters. After that, these clusters were filtered according to their abundance and differential occurrence in each treatment resulting in 280 differential expressed genes. Functions related to methanol/etanol metabolism, cell division, oxidative stress response, siderophore production, peptidoglycan and hopanoid biosynthesis were induced in bacterial cells adhered to plant roots, while genes related to essential cell metabolism were observed mostly in control and planktonic treatment. Also, these data provide insights into the mechanisms modulating plant microbe-interaction, significantly distinguishing biofilm and planktonic treatment, showing that the physical contact is a crucial step on plant-microbe interactions. In conclusion, results allowed a strongly supported analysis of gene expression, based on the genome draft of an endophytic bacterium interacting with the host plant. Further studies should focus on the adaptive mechanisms present in this bacterium, like the methylotrophic lifestyle and other specific metabolisms which might support its behavior as an endophytic bacterium.

A bacteria Pectobacterium carotovora causa danos a diferentes hospedeiros por meio da produção de enzimas pectinolíticas que degradam o pectato de cálcio da lamela media próximo a parede celular, causando extravasamento do conteúdo celular, sintomas da podridão mole. Bactérias do gênero Burkholderia tem se mostrado capazes em controlar a podridão mole em orquídeas, no entanto, os aspectos moleculares envolvidos neste controle ainda não foram estudados. Neste trabalho, foram avaliados 602 transformantes quanto a sua habilidade em inibir os sintomas da podridão mole, onde foram observados 16 mutantes defectivos no controle da doença. Destes, foram identificados sete diferentes genes inativados pelo transposon Tn5, e estes genes podem estar envolvidos em processos de síntese de aleloquímicos, competição por nutrientes, adaptação a condições ambientais, e na interação com o hospedeiro e/ou entre microrganismos. No entanto, o envolvimento destes genes na perda da capacidade em controlar a podridão mole deve ser melhor estudado. / The bacterium Pectobacterium carotovora cause damage to different hosts and by production of pectic enzymes that degrade calcium pectate of the middle lamella near of the cell wall, causing overflow of cell content and consequently the soft rot. Burkholderia genus has proven able to control the soft rot in Orchids, however, the molecular aspects involved in the control have not been studied. In this work, 602 transformants were characterized for their ability to inhibit soft rot caused by P. carotovora. We identified 16 mutants showing shifts in inhibition pattern or lost of the ablitity to inhibit soft rot symptoms. Among these mutants, we identified 7 genes related to disease inhibition,and this genes may be involved in process of allelochemicals synthesis, competition for nutrients, adapting to environmental conditions, and interaction between the host and microorganisms. However, the involvement of these genes in loss of ability to control the soft rot disease is being further studied in details.

INTRODUÇÃO: As infecções osteoarticulares permanecem como um grande desafio para os profissionais de saúde envolvidos no seu manejo, a despeito do sucesso obtido com a introdução dos antimicrobianos para o tratamento das doenças infectocontagiosas no final da década de 1930. O Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) é o agente mais frequentemente encontrado nestas infecções e também é o agente mais estudado, porém possuímos poucas informações disponíveis na literatura médica a respeito das osteomielites por bacilos Gram-negativos (BGN). OBJETIVOS: A caracterização clínica e microbiológica dos episódios de osteomielite causadas por bacilos Gram-negativos. A determinação das diferenças evolutivas e dos fatores de risco para a ocorrência de osteomielite por bacilos Gram-negativos, quando comparadas à osteomielite causada por S. aureus. MÉTODOS: Análise retrospectiva dos casos de osteomielite causadas por bacilos Gram-negativos atendidos no Instituto de Ortopedia e Traumatologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo no período de janeiro de 2007 a janeiro de 2009. Apenas amostras de osso ou aspirado de canal medular foram consideradas válidas. RESULTADOS: Foram incluídos 89 pacientes no grupo S. aureus e 101 pacientes no grupo BGN. Os pacientes do grupo BGN eram predominantemente do sexo masculino (63%), com mediana de 42 anos de idade. Apresentaram-se com osteomielite crônica (43%) e osteomielite aguda associada à fratura exposta (32%), nos membros inferiores (71%), cuja principal sintomatologia inicial foi a fistulização (69%). Quando comparado ao grupo S. aureus, o grupo BGN estava estatisticamente associado com o antecedente de fratura exposta (35% vs. 18%; p=0,0064), apresentando ainda um maior tempo de internação hospitalar (mediana 41 vs. 24 dias; p=0,0114), maior tempo para a obtenção da primeira cultura positiva (mediana 10 vs. 6,5 dias; p=0,0042), antibioticoterapia mais prolongada (mediana 40 vs. 24 dias; p=0,0329), maior número de procedimentos cirúrgicos (média 3,41 vs. 2,47; p=0,0173) e maior uso de reparo do revestimento cutâneo (31% vs. 9%; p=0,0005). O grupo S. aureus estava estatisticamente associado com as osteomielites da coluna vertebral (23,6% vs. 6,9%; p=0,0008). Foram isolados 121 agentes Gram-negativos de 101 amostras clínicas e os agentes mais frequentes foram Enterobacter spp. (24,7%), Acinetobacter baumannii (21,4%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (19,8%) e Klebsiella pneumoniae (8,2%). CONCLUSÕES: Os 101 pacientes portadores de osteomielite por BGN eram na sua maioria jovens, do sexo masculino, vítimas de traumas nos membros inferiores e que desenvolveram osteomielite aguda e crônica associadas a fraturas expostas. Os pacientes do grupo BGN necessitaram de um número maior de procedimentos cirúrgicos, maior uso de reparo do revestimento cutâneo, permaneceram internados por mais tempo, necessitaram de um número de dias maior para o isolamento do agente infeccioso e utilizaram antibioticoterapia mais prolongada, quando comparados aos pacientes do grupo S. aureus. O antecedente de fratura exposta foi o principal fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de osteomielite por um BGN, quando comparado ao grupo S. aureus / INTRODUCTION: Bone and joint infection remains a serious therapeutic challenge, despite the high success rate observed with antibiotic therapy in most bacterial disease since the end of 1930 decade. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is the most studied and the most frequently isolated pathogen, but there is insufficient information in medical literature regarding Gram- negative bacilli (GNB) osteomyelitis. OBJECTIVES: Describe clinical and microbiological characteristics of Gram-negative bacilli osteomyelitis. Establish evolving differences and risk factors for the occurrence of GNB osteomyelitis, compared to S. aureus osteomyelitis. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of all patients with GNB osteomyelitis treated at Institute of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Hospital das Clínicas - School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo from january 2007 to january 2009. Only bone or bone marrow aspirate samples were included. RESULTS: 89 patients were included in S. aureus group and 101 patients were included in GNB group. Patients in GNB group were mostly male (63%), with median age of 42 years. At presentation, they had chronic osteomyelitis (43%) and acute open-fracture associated osteomyelitis (32%), in the lower limbs (71%), with a discharging sinus as the main clinical sign (69%). When compared to S. aureus group, GNB group was statistically associated with a previous history of open-fracture (35% vs. 18%; p=0.0064), showed a longer length of hospital stay (median 41 vs. 24 days; p=0.0114), a higher number of days to isolate the infective bacteria (median 10 vs. 6,5 days; p=0.0042), a longer use of antibiotics (median 40 vs. 24 days; p=0.0329), a higher number of surgical procedures (mean 3,41 vs. 2,47; p=0.0173) and a higher rate of soft- tissue reconstruction (31% vs. 9%; p=0.0005). S. aureus group was statistically associated with spine osteomyelitis (23,6% vs. 6.9%; p=0.0008). 121 Gram-negative pathogens were isolated from 101 clinical samples and the most frequent agents were Enterobacter spp. (24.7%), Acinetobacter baumannii (21.4%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (19.8%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (8.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with GNB osteomyelitis were mainly young, male, with lower limb trauma and developed chronic and open- fracture associated osteomyelitis. Patients in GNB group had a higher number of surgical procedures, a higher rate of soft-tissue reconstruction, a longer length of hospitalization, a longer time to isolate the infective bacteria and a prolonged use of antibiotics, when compared to patients in S. aureus group. A previous history of open-fracture was the main risk factor to development of GNB osteomyelitis, compared to S. aureus group

La surexpression des pompes d’efflux (PE) appartenant à la famille Resistance-Nodulation-Division (RND) est l’un des contributeurs majeurs de la multirésistance (MDR) et la pathogénicité des bactéries Gram-négatives. Ces transporteurs sont capables d'expulser à l’extérieur de la cellule bactérienne différentes classes d'antibiotiques, ce qui contribue de manière significative à l'échec thérapeutique du traitement des maladies infectieuses. Dans ce contexte, les PEs sont des cibles intéressantes pour la découverte de nouveaux antimicrobiens. Afin de combattre ce mécanisme de résistance, des inhibiteurs des pompes d’efflux (EPIs) sont développés comme adjuvants d'antibiotiques dans le but de restaurer ou d'améliorer leur activité. L'archétype AcrAB-TolC est particulièrement répandu chez les espèces d’Enterobacter pertinentes en clinique (pathogènes « ESKAPE »). Cette étude décrit une stratégie basée sur des analogues des fluoroquinolones pour le drug design des EPIs, contre la pompe AcrB chez E. aerogenes. Ainsi, la synthèse et l'évaluation microbiologique des dérivés de quinazoline-4(3H)-one ont été effectuées. Les propriétés structurales et moléculaires des composés testés (i.e. rigidité et flexibilité) ont également été étudiées. Pour cela, de nouveaux scaffolds ont été évaluées. Plusieurs molécules ont montré une augmentation de la sensibilité des bactéries à la norfloxacine et au chloramphénicol. Les résultats obtenus, appuyés par la modélisation moléculaire, suggèrent que la flexibilité moléculaire et la nature des fonctions chimiques des EPIs jouent un rôle essentiel dans l'amélioration de l'activité et la sélectivité vis-à-vis des fluoroquinolones. / Overexpression of Resistance-Nodulation-Division (RND) efflux pumps (EP) is a major contributor in multidrug resistance (MDR) and pathogenicity in Gram-negative bacteria. These transporters are able to expel out of the bacterial cell clinically important antibiotic classes, contributing in a significant manner to the treatment failure of infectious diseases. With the worrying levels of bacterial resistance reported worldwide and the continuous spreading of MDR pathogens, EPs are interesting targets for the discovery of new antimicrobial drugs. Therefore, to overcome this mechanism, efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) are being developed as adjuvants in order to restore or improve the activity of usual antibiotics. The AcrAB-TolC archetype is particularly widespread in Enterobacter spp. presenting clinical relevance (ESKAPE pathogens). In this study, we described the drug design strategy based on fluoroquinolone antibiotic analogs, against the AcrB pump of E. aerogenes. Thus, synthesis and microbiological evaluation of quinazolin-4(3H)-one derivatives were performed. The structural and molecular properties of the tested compounds (i. e. rigidity and flexibility) were also investigated. In this purpose, a scaffold hopping of the quinazolinone core to homologous benzoquinazolinones and precursors benzamides were carried out. Several molecules increased the bacterial susceptibility towards norfloxacin and chloramphenicol. The obtained results, supported by molecular modeling, suggest that molecular flexibility and the nature of chemical functions play a critical role to improve activity and selectivity on fluoroquinolone potentiation targeting AcrB efflux pump.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a microaerophilic, Gram-negative motile curved rod that inhabits the gastric mucosa of the human stomach. The organism chronically infects billions of people worldwide and is one of the most genetically diverse of bacterial species. Infection with the organism potentially induces chronic gastritis and peptic ulcer disease. In addition, H. pylori plays a role in the etiology of gastric cancer and gastric MALT lymphoma. The risk of infection is increased in those living in the developing world, which has been ascribed to precarious hygiene standards, crowded households, and deficient sanitation common in this part of the world. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the risk factors in the transmission of H. pylori in our environment, i.e. in Nkonkobe Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Faecal samples were collected from 356 apparently healthy subjects, consisting of 168 males and 188 females aged from 3 months to 60 years (Mean = 31 years). A standardized questionnaire was applied, it described demographic characteristics including age, sex, household hygiene, socioeconomic status, area of residence, duration of stay in the area, sharing bath water, sharing tooth brush, habit of sucking thumb, medication currently being taken or medication taken within the past three months, source of water, type of toilet used, education and occupation. A sandwich-type enzyme immunoassay amplification technology (Amplified IDEIA TM Hp StAR TM , Oxoid, UK) was used to analyze the faecal samples for the detection of H. pylori antigens using monoclonal antibodies specific for H. pylori antigens. To assess the possibility of faecal oral route with tap water as an intermediary link, PCR targeting the ureC (glmM), a highly conserved gene in H. pylori ii was carried out to detect H. pylori DNA in faecal samples of already positive samples by HpSA test as well as in direct tap water used by the H. pylori positive subjects. QIAamp DNA stool mini kit was used to extract DNA from faecal samples. Tap water samples were then obtained using sterile bottles from areas inhabited by H. pylori positive subjects as determined by HpSA test and PCR. DNA extraction from water samples was done using UltraCleanTM Water DNA Isolation Kit (0.22μm) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. PCR with primers specific for H. pylori glmM gene was carried out with both positive and negative controls incorporated. Fisher’s exact test was used to assess the univariate association between H. pylori infection and the possible risk factors. Odds ratio (OR) and the corresponding 95 percent confidence interval (CI) were calculated to measure the strength of association using EPI INFO 3.41 package. P values of < .05 were required for significance. The precision rate of the diagnostic tests used was also determined. H. pylori antigen was detected in 316 of the 356 subjects giving an overall prevalence of 88.8 percent. Prevalence increased with age from 75.9 percent in children < 12 years age to 100 percent in the age group from 13 years to 24 years, also 100 percent prevalence of H. pylori was recorded in young adults aged 25-47 years and subjects aged 60 years (P < .05). H. pylori prevalence was higher in females than in males. Of 188 females who participated in the study, H. pylori antigen was detected in 172 (91.5 percent) versus 144 (85.7 percent) of 168 males (P > .05). Interestingly, H pylori antigen was detected more often (100 percent) in the high socioeconomic group than in those of low socioeconomic group (85.9 percent). Sixteen (66.7 percent) of twenty four faecal samples that had previously tested positive for the organism by HpSA test were confirmed positive by PCR. However none of the treated tap water samples tested positive for the organism by PCR. The present iii study revealed a high prevalence of H. pylori in faecal samples of asymptomatic individuals in the Nkonkobe Municipality, an indication of active infection. The obtained results also revealed that direct treated tap water might not be playing a crucial role in the oral transmission of H. pylori in the studied population.

A bacteria Pectobacterium carotovora causa danos a diferentes hospedeiros por meio da produção de enzimas pectinolíticas que degradam o pectato de cálcio da lamela media próximo a parede celular, causando extravasamento do conteúdo celular, sintomas da podridão mole. Bactérias do gênero Burkholderia tem se mostrado capazes em controlar a podridão mole em orquídeas, no entanto, os aspectos moleculares envolvidos neste controle ainda não foram estudados. Neste trabalho, foram avaliados 602 transformantes quanto a sua habilidade em inibir os sintomas da podridão mole, onde foram observados 16 mutantes defectivos no controle da doença. Destes, foram identificados sete diferentes genes inativados pelo transposon Tn5, e estes genes podem estar envolvidos em processos de síntese de aleloquímicos, competição por nutrientes, adaptação a condições ambientais, e na interação com o hospedeiro e/ou entre microrganismos. No entanto, o envolvimento destes genes na perda da capacidade em controlar a podridão mole deve ser melhor estudado. / The bacterium Pectobacterium carotovora cause damage to different hosts and by production of pectic enzymes that degrade calcium pectate of the middle lamella near of the cell wall, causing overflow of cell content and consequently the soft rot. Burkholderia genus has proven able to control the soft rot in Orchids, however, the molecular aspects involved in the control have not been studied. In this work, 602 transformants were characterized for their ability to inhibit soft rot caused by P. carotovora. We identified 16 mutants showing shifts in inhibition pattern or lost of the ablitity to inhibit soft rot symptoms. Among these mutants, we identified 7 genes related to disease inhibition,and this genes may be involved in process of allelochemicals synthesis, competition for nutrients, adapting to environmental conditions, and interaction between the host and microorganisms. However, the involvement of these genes in loss of ability to control the soft rot disease is being further studied in details.

Yersinia pestis, the gram-negative causative agent of plague, is a master of immune evasion. The bacterium possesses a type three secretion system which translocates Yop effector proteins into host immune cells to inhibit a number of immune and cell signaling cascades. Interestingly, this apparatus is not expressed at low temperatures such as those found within the flea vector and is therefore neither in place nor functional when the bacteria are first transmitted into a mammalian host. However, the bacterium is still able to avoid activating the immune system, even very early during infection. When grown at 37°C (human body temperature) Y. pestis produces a tetra-acyl lipid A molecule, which is antagonistic to the human Toll like receptor 4/MD2, the major lipopolysaccharide recognition receptor. Although tetra-acyl lipid A binds this receptor complex, it does not induce signaling, and in fact inhibits the receptors interaction with other stimulatory forms of lipid A. The work undertaken in this thesis seeks to determine if the production of tetra-acyl lipid A by Y. pestis is a key virulence determinant and was a critical factor in the evolution of Y. pestis from its ancestral parent Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. By examining the enzymes involved in the lipid A biosynthesis pathway, it has been determined that Y. pestis lacks LpxL, a key enzyme that adds a secondary acyl chain on to the tetra acyl lipid A molecule. In the absence of this enzyme, Y. pestis cannot produce a TLR4 stimulating form of lipid A, whereas Y. pseudotuberculosis does contain the gene for LpxL and produces a stimulatory hexa acyl lipid A. To determine if the absence of LpxL in Y. pestis is important for virulence, LpxL from E. coli and Y. pseudotuberculosis were introduced into Y. pestis. In both cases the addition of LpxL led to bacterium which produced a hexa-acylated lipid A molecule and TLR4/MD2 stimulatory LPS. To verify the LpxL phenotype, lpxL was deleted from Y. pseudotuberculosis, resulting in bacteria which produce tetra-acylated lipid A and nonstimulatory LPS. Mice challenged with LpxL expressing Y. pestis were found to be completely resistant to infection. This profound attenuation in virulence is TLR4 dependent, as mice deficient for this receptor rapidly succumb to disease. These altered strains of the bacterium also act as vaccines, as mice infected with Y. pestis expressing LpxL then challenged with wild type Y. pestis do not become ill. These data demonstrate that the production of tetra-acyl lipid A is a critical virulence determinant for Y. pestis, and that the loss of LpxL formed a major step in the evolution of Y. pestis from Y. pseudotuberculosis. These bacterial strains were also used as tools to determine the contributions of different innate immune receptors and adaptor molecules to the host response during Y. pestis infection. The use of LpxL expressing Y. pestis allowed identification of the innate immune pathways critical for protection during Y. pestis infection. This model also established that CD14 recognition of rough LPS is critical for protection from Y. pestisexpressing LpxL, and activation of the IL-1 receptor and the induction of IL-1β plays a major role in this infection as well. The lipid A acylation profile of gram negative bacteria can have a direct and profound effect on the pathogenesis of the organism. This work illustrates a previously unknown and critical aspect of Y. pestis pathogenesis, which can be extended to other gram-negative pathogens. The greater detail of the contributions which different host adaptor and receptor molecules make to the overall innate immune signaling pathway will allow a better insight into how gram negative infections progress and how they are counteracted by the immune system. Alterations of the lipid A profile of Y. pestis have important implications for the production of vaccines to Y. pestis and other gram negative pathogens. Taken together, this work describes a novel mechanism for immune evasion by gram negative bacteria with consequences for understanding the immune response and the creation of more effective vaccines, both of which will decrease the danger posed by this virulent pathogen.