The experience of pregnancy and childbirth is a central life event with special implications for women at high risk. This thesis describes the meaning of pregnancy, childbirth and midwifery care in four qualitative interview studies based on the lifeworld theory. Women were interviewed during pregnancy and within one week after childbirth. Midwives were interviewed concerning midwifery care for women at high risk. In an intervention study, childbirth experience as reported through a post partum questionnaire was compared between women receiving standard care and women who had formulated a birth plan preceded by a questionnaire on their expectations and feelings about childbirth. The findings emphasise that childbearing women at high risk live in an extremely vulnerable situation. The vulnerability is obvious in the use of an individual birth plan, where negative feelings become more frequent in women at high risk than in those with normal pregnancy and childbirth. During pregnancy the women feel a moral commitment towards the child, including feelings of objectification and of exaggerated responsibility. During an obstetrically complicated childbirth the essential meaning is the women’s desire to be recognised and affirmed as individual persons. Like women with normal pregnancy and childbirth, they need an emotionally present midwife who sees, give trust and supports. Good midwifery care of childbearing women at high risk is synthesised as "genuine caring in caring for the genuine". The ethos of caring constitutes the basis of caring. Women’s transition during pregnancy and childbirth is described as a genuinely natural process. Midwives have a special responsibility to encourage and preserve this process within women at high risk. The caring relationship is the core and the most essential tool in the care. Distinctive features in the midwifery care are embodied knowledge, physical as well as emotional presence, sensitivity, a mutual dialogue including shared control between midwife and woman, and confirmation and support of the genuine in each woman. The midwifery care is a struggle and a balance between natural and medical perspectives.

Background: Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is a relatively common condition. In Sweden, the overall estimated prevalence of POP in the female population is 31% and the prevalence of symptomatic prolapse is 8–15%. The prevalence of POP increases with age. The lifetime risk of undergoing pelvic floor surgery is estimated to 11%. The aim of this thesis was to investigate outcomes of vaginal hysterectomy for treatment of prolapse; to study outcomes of cystocele repair surgery and patient satisfaction related to different anaesthesia methods; to explore women’s experiences of vaginal prolapse; and to investigate what is known regarding POP prior to surgery and healthcare-seeking behaviour. Methods: In the Swedish National Quality Register for Gynaecological Surgery (Gynop-register), 941 women were identified who underwent vaginal hysterectomy for prolapse from 1997 to 2005 and 1,364 women were identified who underwent cystocele repair surgery from 2006 to 2009. In-depth interviews were performed with 14 women with vaginal prolapse. Interview data were analyzed with a qualitative content analysis. To investigate women’s knowledge about POP and healthcare-seeking behaviour, a questionnaire was developed, validated and distributed to women with planned surgery for POP. Women undergoing hysterectomy or incontinence surgery were used as reference groups. Results: Severe complications after vaginal hysterectomy occurred in 3% of cases. Sexual activity was improved after vaginal hysterectomy, the number of women reported to have intercourse increased by 20% (p = 0.006). Subjective symptoms of urinary incontinence and overactive bladder were resolved in 50% of the women. De novo stress incontinence was reported by 11% of the women. Use of local anaesthesia (LA) in reconstruction of cystocele showed advantage over other forms of anaesthesia. Length of hospital stay, duration of use of postoperative pain-killing drugs, and time to return to daily activity were shorter among women who underwent surgery with LA compared to other forms of anaesthesia. Patient satisfaction was not related to methods of anaesthesia. In an interview study, the process from recognition the symptoms to seeking healthcare was highlighted. Two categories, “obstacles” and “facilitators” to seeking health care, were identified. One of the obstacles was lack of information on POP in the public domain. The main facilitators were feeling sexually unattractive and impaired physical ability due to POP. Some findings from the interview study were further explored in the questionnaire study. One out of five women with vaginal prolapse did not know that the symptoms were related to prolapse before consulting their physician. Over 30% of the women in the incontinence group were embarrassed to talk about incontinence, and they were unaware that it could be treated. The most frequent description of vaginal prolapse was vaginal bulging. Women in the prolapse group had significantly less access to information through brochures and public media than women in the incontinence group (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Short-term follow-up after vaginal hysterectomy showed that sexual activity and urinary symptoms had improved. Cystocele surgery using LA showed no disadvantage compared to surgery using other anaesthesia methods. POP surgery can therefore be performed safely with LA. Information on prolapse should be easily accessible to improve the possibility for women of gaining knowledge and thereby overcoming obstacles to seeking medical advice. Healthcare professionals have a significant role to play in informing women about symptoms and available treatment options.

Background: In high-income countries, hospital length of stay after a normal birth has gradually decreased correspondingly to length of stay in care of other patients. A short stay provides a greater opportunity for autonomy and an increased sense of participation, but it may involve great challenges satisfying parental guidance as well as on the possibility of preventing, discovering, and treating neonatal medical conditions. Aim: This study evaluates postnatal care based on cost calculations, risk assessments, and parents’ satisfaction with care. Methods: Questionnaires were sent to 1 122 new mothers and her partner during 1998-1999. For the summary of utilization of health care services during the first 28 days postdelivery, the participants were linked with registry data from the hospital administration system for mothers and newborns (n= 773). The answers were also used to describe new parents’ experiences with postnatal care (n = 1 479). The costs for five postnatal care models were estimated, including three care options: Maternity Ward, Family Suite, and Early Discharge. Data about neonatal readmissions and death within 28 days was retrieved from the Swedish Medical Birth Register, the Swedish Hospital Discharge Registry, and the Swedish Cause-of-Death Register between 1999 and 2002 (n = 197 898). This data was related to data about postnatal follow-up practices from all 48 Swedish delivery wards. Results: The readmission rate for the mothers was similar among the various care options, and there was no difference in utilization of health care or breastfeeding outcome due to type of maternity care. As a proxy for morbidity, the readmission rate for the newborns was influenced by postdelivery follow-up routines as routine neonatal examination timing. Depending on the proportion of mothers receiving care at the Maternity Ward, the costs differed significantly between the various care models, while parents’ preferences complied with the cost-minimizing option Family Suite. Most mothers and fathers (70%) were satisfied with the overall impression of the postnatal care, but 72% were dissatisfied with at least one particular topic. A main finding was that the parents experienced a close emotional attachment, an affinity that was not always supported by the staff. The father was not treated as a principal character even though the parents wanted the father’s to be involved and recognized. Conclusions: Since the postnatal care options are not always the most cost minimizing and postnatal routines influence neonatal morbidity and parental satisfaction, the postnatal services need to be improved. Without increasing risks or costs, every postnatal care option ought to meet the families’ need for support, security, autonomy, and attachment with each other.

OBJECTIVES To determine if health care workers are aware of the HPV vaccine and its availability, uptake of the vaccine and prescribing practices and reasons for non – uptake of the vaccine . METHODS Health care providers working in the private sector, in the Ethekweni health district in Kwazulu Natal, were interviewed. Health care workers included: 100 general practitioners, 50 gynaecologists, 50 paediatricians, 50 medical staff and 50 nursing staff. A questionnaire was designed for purpose of this study. Visits were be made to health care providers. All heath care providers who were willing to participate were interviewed. STATISTICS Comparisons of awareness among subgroups of health care providers was analysed using Chi-square tests. If significant, pairwise comparisons were made using a Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons. Associations between awareness and other factors, such as demographic, uptake and beliefs were tested using a chi square test. Analysis was done by Stata v11 (StataCorp, 2009) i RESULTS Three hundred health care workers were interviewed - 50 gynecologists (16.7%), 52 pediatricians (17.3%), 99 general practitioners (33%), 49 other medical doctors (16.3%) and 50 (16.7%) nurses. Two hundred and sixty seven health care workers (89%) were aware of the HPV vaccine and one hundred and eighty eight health care workers (70.4%) informed patients of the availability of the HPV vaccine. Most (77.9%) practitioners have only prescribed the vaccine less than ten times. Gardasil® was prescribed by 46%, Cervarix® by 6.5% and prescription of either vaccine of health care workers was 50.2%. Practitioners were generally unaware that Gardasil® could be prescribed to males (62.9%). CONCLUSION Health care workers were aware of the HPV vaccine and prescribed the vaccine on request. However even though practitioners were aware of the vaccine, most have prescribed the vaccine less than ten times since licensing in 2008. Knowledge with regards to the licensed use of the HPV vaccines is deficient. / Thesis (M.Med.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Premenstrual depressive symptoms and mood swings affect 3-8% of women in fertile age. The female hormones are believed to be the cause. Progesterone is well studied, but estrogen is not, and either are other causes such as intimate partner violence and chronic stress. The aim in this thesis was to investigate the influence of hormones as well as psychological aspects on the most common problems among women seeking care for premenstrual symptoms. In a cross-sectional study, four groups of women were included: ongoing users of oral contraceptives, with or without adverse mood symptoms and previous users, with or without experience of adverse mood. Depression and anxiety were significantly more common in both groups with reported adverse mood, in comparison with their control groups with no adverse mood. Self-reported PMS was significantly more common in those women who reported adverse mood, however, there was no difference in prospectively defined PMS or PMDD between the two groups of previous users. In a RCT with 25 women completing the study, GnRH treatment were tested in combination with two different HRT add-back doses of estradiol, in combination with progesterone and placebo. The higher dose of estrogen 1.5 mg in combination with progesterone induced significantly more pronounced symptoms than in combination with placebo. The lower dose, 0.5 mg gave less symptom recurrence in combination with progesterone. Exposure to violence was investigated among PMDD patients, healthy controls and gynecological patients. Among the participating women, gynecological patients, reported physical and/or emotional abuse significantly more often than did PMDD patients, as well as healthy controls. Chronic stress was investigated with diurnal cortisol, and low-dose dexamethasone test.  There was no difference in diurnal secretion of cortisol between PMDD patients and controls. No difference in the degree of dexamethasone suppression was found between PMDD patients and controls. According to the results from these studies, the main symptom provoking factor in women with PMDD appears to be the estradiol and progesterone fluctuations across the menstrual cycle, whereas chronic stress and intimate partner violence appears to be less relevant.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The impact of isolated growth hormone deficiency (IGHD) in physiology and clinical presentation of climateric it s not known. Climateric state in normal persons, presents hormonal profile alteration, principally increase in FSH and estradiol decrease, characterizing a hypergonadotrophic and hypoestrogenic state, due to the ovarian follicular decrease. IGHD limits linear growth, but overcoat to accented diminution of insuline like growth factor (IGF1) and consequently promote alteration in muscle, bone, fat, glucosis metabolism and corporal mass index. Our objectives are evaluating intensity of climateric symptoms, hormonal alterations, and metabolic alterations and identify morbidity on this period. It was realized transversal cut study in two groups. Goup 1 with 7 persons with isolated growth hormone deficiency in Itabaianinha-SE city , homozygots to growth hormone receptor s mutation. Group 2, with 13 persons with normal growth hormone. All persons with age between 40 and 65 years old and FSH above 20mUI/ml. It was utilized clinical card, Kupperman s menopause index, blood dosage of FSH, LH, prolactin, estradiol, total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, triglycerides and glycemia. Oncotic colpocytology and image exams like pelvic ultra-sound, mammography and mammary ultra-sound. Statistical analyses were provided by hypotheses comparation utilizing SPSS software, version 12. To comparate variables media, T-Student, Mann-Witney and frequency test x2 was utilized, with p<0.05. Results presented antropometric data, like weight and high, IGHD (36.41kg ± 7.29 and 117cm ± 4.08) and control (62.26kg ± 11.42 and 154.12cm ± 6.38) with p<0.05. Kupperman s menopause index in IGHD and control groups had small intensity (13.20 ± 9.30 and 16.00 ± 10.50). In climateric symptoms proportion of insomnia in IGHD and control groups (57% and 46%) with p=0.053. Reproductive aspects in IGHD and control groups presented, in menarche age (17 and 13 years old, with p<0.05), first sexual relationship age (28 and 19 years old, with p=0.065), gestation number (2 and 5, with p<0.05). Hormonal profile characteristic for climateric, just prolactin in IGHD and control groups (3.90ng ± 1.90 and 6.60ng ± 3.26) p<0.05. On metabolic profile, glycemia in IGHD and control groups (105.90mg/dl ± 13.40 and 91.43mg/dl ± 13.18) with p<0.05, showing IGHD group biologically being the group probally disglycemic. Uterus volume in IGHD and control groups (42.30cm3 ± 9.78 and 88.68cm3 ± 63.13) were normal, but IGHD group presented this volume in minumum limit of normality. In IGHD and control groups, endometrial volume (0.64cm ± 0.14 and 0.67cm ± 0.30) and ovary volume (3.13cm3 ± 1.52 and 4.00cm3 ± 2.85) had not significance. Mammography in IGHD group 85,2% BI-RADS 1 normal breast and 61.5% in control group. Oncotic colpocytology in IGHD group presented inflammatory process 42.9% and in control group 61.5%. Conclusion: Climateric in IGHD patients had not presented differences in clinical aspects and hormonal profile. However, morbidity in IGHD group was benign with breast cysts, vaginal inflammation, tendency to a small hypertension and disglycemia. / O impacto da deficiência isolada do hormônio de crescimento na fisiologia e na apresentação clínica do climatério não é conhecido. O climatério em indivíduos normais apresenta alteração do perfil hormonal, principalmente elevação do FSH e diminuição do estradiol, caracterizando um estado hipergonadotrófico e hipoestrogênico, decorrência da diminuição folicular ovariana. A deficiência isolada do hormônio de crescimento tem como pressuposto a limitação do crescimento linear, mas, sobretudo leva diminuição acentuada do fator de crescimento semelhantes à insulina (IGFI) e como conseqüência promove alteração no metabolismo muscular, ósseo, da gordura, do hidrato de carbono e do índice de massa corpórea. O nosso objetivo é avaliar a intensidade da sintomatologia do climatério, as alterações hormonais, metabólicas e identificar morbidade própria deste período. Foi realizado um estudo de corte transversal em dois grupos. O grupo 1 com 7 indivíduos com deficiência isolada do hormônio de crescimento da cidade de Itabaianinha-SE, homozigotos para mutação do receptor do hormônio de crescimento (GHRH-R) e o grupo 2 com 13 indivíduos com GH normal. Todos com idade dos 40 aos 65 anos e FSH acima de 20mUI/ml. Foram utilizados ficha clínica, índice de menopausa de Kupperman, dosagem sérica de FSH, LH, Prolactina, estradiol, colesterol total, LDL, HDL, triglicerídeos e glicemia. Colpocitologia oncótica e exames de imagem como ultra-sonografia pélvica, mamografia e ultra-som mamário. Análise estatística através de teste de comparação de hipóteses utilizando programa estatístico SPSS versão 12. Para comparação das medias das variáveis, T-Student, Mann-Whitney e teste de freqüência x2. O valor do p<0,05 foi estatisticamente significante. Os resultados apresentaram os dados antropométricos, como peso e altura, DIGH (36,41 kg ±7,29 e 117 cm ± 4,08) e controle (62,26kg ± 11,42 e 154,12 cm ± 6,38) com p<0,05 e a pressão sistólica foi discretamente elevada no DIGH e controle (131,43 ± 19,52 e 129,23 ± 12,56) embora não significante. Índice de Kupperman no grupo DIGH e controle (13,20 ± 9,30 e 16,00 ± 10,50) intensidade leve. Nos sintomas climatéricos a proporção insônia nos grupos DIGH e controle (57% e 46%) com p = 0,053. Os aspectos reprodutivos no grupo DIGH e controle apresentaram a idade da menarca (17 anos e 13 anos com p < 0,05), a idade da primeira relação sexual (28 anos e 19 anos com p = 0,065), número de gestação (2 e 5 gestações com p<0,05), número de parto (2 e 5 partos com p<0,05). O perfil hormonal típico do climatério, apenas a prolactina nos grupos DIGH e controle (3,90 ng ± 1,90 e 6,60 ng ± 3,26) p<0,05 foi significante. No perfil metabólico a glicemia nos grupos DIGH e controle (105,90mg/dl ± 13,40 e 91,43mg/dl ± 13,18) com p<0,05, sendo o grupo DIGH parcialmente disglicêmico. O volume do útero no grupo DIGH e controle (42,30 cm³± 9,78 e 88,68 cm³± 63,13) embora volume normais, o grupo DIGH apresentou volume no limite inferior de normalidade com p<0.05. No grupo DIGH e controle o volume endometrial (0,64 cm ± 014 e 0,67cm ± 0,30) e o volume dos ovários (3,13 cm³± 1,52 e 4,00 cm³± 2,85) não foram significativos. A mamografia no grupo DIGH 85,2% BI-RADS 1 mamas normais e no grupo controle foi de 69,24%. A colpocitologia oncótica no grupo DIGH apresentou processo inflamatório 42,9% e no grupo controle 61,5%. Conclusão: o climatério de portadoras de DIGH não apresentou diferenças nos aspectos clínicos e no perfil hormonal. Entretanto, a morbidade no grupo DIGH foi de caráter benigno como cisto mamário, vaginite, tendência à hipertensão leve e disglicemia.

Magister Legum - LLM / South Africa has seen a spike in medical malpractice litigation, including the number and size of claims instituted against healthcare practitioners. This has led to a backlog in medical malpractice court cases throughout South Africa and a strain on both the public and private healthcare sectors, affecting an already burdened healthcare system. The surge in medical malpractice litigation is not a new phenomenon in developed countries. Most have curbed this through alternative dispute resolution (ADR). This has been facilitated by effectively introducing efficient legal frameworks that promote ADR. Unfortunately, this is not the case in a developing country such as South Africa. To date, much research and literature has attributed blame for the large-scale increase in medical malpractice litigation to legal practitioners. This has been aided by comments made by the former Minister of Health, Dr Aaron Motsoaledi (Dr Motsoaledi). In as much as this may be the common perception, there appears, to the contrary, to be systematic problems in the South African healthcare system. The legal profession is only a minor contributing factor to the increase in medical malpractice litigation. The strained financial resources and shortage of healthcare staff in public hospitals contributes to the increased risk of medical malpractice cases. Furthermore, when considering the South African legal system, contingency fee arrangements have, in certain circumstances, increased vexatious litigation and, as such, it is on this basis that medical malpractice litigation has been on the increase in South African courts. This study seeks to analyse the current state of the South African healthcare system, and in light of the increasing number of medical practice claims and litigation, propose ADR mechanisms that offer efficient, cost effective, and expeditious channels to resolving these issues and to ensure that parties recognise the full benefits of ADR. This study proposes legal reform in medical malpractice litigation in South Africa. This thesis compares the experiences, legislative and policy frameworks in Australia and the United States of America (USA), in order to learn lessons that could assist South Africa in framing legislation and best practices for ADR. It contends that, in order to effectively develop and implement ADR to address medical malpractice litigation, it requires the involvement of the government, legislature, judiciary, legal profession and the public. It has identified court- iv annexed mediation as the appropriate ADR mechanism in addressing medical malpractice litigation.

<p>The overall aim of this thesis was to inestigate Swedish adolescents' perceptions and behaviours regarding sexual risk taking. Specific objectives were to explore teenagers' perceptions of contraceptive use, unintended pregnancy, and abortion; teenage girls' experiences of decision making process and support connected to abortion; and male adolescents' perceptions of sexual risk taking and barriers to practicing safe sex. Another objective was to evaluate the effect of advance provision of emergency contraceptive pills to teenage girls. The methodologies included focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, and a randomized controlled trial. </p><p>Among the adolescents in our studies, teenage parenthood was generally viewed as a "catastrophe", and the majority expressed supportive attitudes towards abortion (studies I-IV). Occasions of failure to use contraceptives were common, especially when sex was unplanned (studies I-V). Pregnancy prevention was perceived as the woman's responsibility. However, many girls were reluctant about using homonal contraceptives due to worries about negative side effects (I, III). Initiating condom use was difficult for girls, as well as for boys, for a number of reasons (I-IV): fear of ruining an intimate situation, associations with disease, distrust, pleasure reduction, and (for the boys) the fear of loosing one's erection. Males generally perceived personal and partner-related risks connected to unprotected intercourse as low. Few males were worried that an unintended pregnancy would be carried to term, and the majority would urge the girl towards abortion if she seemed ambivalent (II, IV). Girls viewed the abortion decision as a natural, yet difficult choice, strongly influenced by attitudes of partners, parents, peers and societal norms (III). Teenage girls provided with emergency contraceptive pills in advance used it more frequently and sooner after unprotected intercourse compared with controls, without jeopardising regular contraceptive use (V).</p>

<p>This study, based on daily recordings of infant feeding, comprised 506 infants from Uppsala, Sweden. All mothers had had previous breastfeeding experience of at least 4 months, and were planning to breastfeed the index child for ≥6 months.</p><p>Among exclusively breastfed infants there were wide variations in breastfeeding frequency and suckling duration per 24 hours both between infants and in the individual infant over time in the first 6 months. Most infants had an average of 1.0-2.9 feeds per night. Infants using a pacifier had fewer feeds and a shorter total suckling duration per 24 hours, and stopped breastfeeding earlier than infants not using a pacifier. These associations were not found for thumb sucking.</p><p>Accustoming the infants to solids was a lengthy process, the longer the younger the infant at introduction, and was associated with small changes in pattern and duration of breastfeeding. In contrast, formula was usually given in large amounts from the beginning, and when formula was given regularly the daily breastfeeding frequency and suckling duration declined swiftly. The younger an infant at the start of regular formula feeds, the shorter the breastfeeding duration. Occasional formula feeds did not affect the breastfeeding duration.</p><p>It is important for health personnel and parents to keep in mind that exclusively breastfed infants are not a homogeneous group, but rather members of distinct 'breastfeeding entities'. Moreover, if the aim is to introduce other foods 'under the protection of breast milk' it is important to realise that formula is also 'another food' and needs to be treated as such.</p>

<p>Studies were performed on methodological issues on vitamin A intake, status and improvement in three Asian countries, to improve the dietary approach recommended by FAO/WHO to alleviate vitamin A deficiency in low-income countries.</p><p>The reliability of the practical 24-hour dietary recall method to assess individual intake of vitamin A during pregnancy was investigated in Central Java, Indonesia. The usual mean intake of vitamin A can be reliably measured, but data on attenuation of simple regression coefficients suggest that it is difficult to establish associations between vitamin A intake and some health outcome. The majority of women was below the recommended daily intake of vitamin A in all three trimesters and strategies to improve vitamin A intake in all women are thus needed.</p><p>The applicability of the simplified "Helen Keller International Food Frequency Method" to assess community risk of vitamin A deficiency in South Asia, even though it excludes breastmilk and animal milk, was tested in rural Bangladesh and rural India. Breast milk was found to be an important source of vitamin A even in the second and third years of life in rural areas of Bangladesh. Similarly, animal milk is likely to be an important source of vitamin A among preschoolers in certain areas of India. The method should be revalidated to make it a useful tool even in settings where breastmilk and animal milk are common in the diets of preschool children.</p><p>Whether it is possible to improve vitamin A status with dark green leafy vegetables in children free of <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> was investigated in northern Bangladesh. A substantial increase in serum β-carotene was seen after supplementary feeding of these vegetables for 6 weeks. The impact on serum retinol concentrations was less substantial.</p>