O interesse mundial e os investimentos em fontes renováveis de energia têm aumentado consideravelmente nos últimos anos. Estas tecnologias têm a vantagem de aproveitar os recursos disponíveis localmente, reduzindo a dependência de fontes externas. Entretanto, um dos principais problemas associados a muitas das tecnologias de energias renováveis é sua imprevisibilidade ou intermitência. O armazenamento de energia é a técnica mais utilizada para moderar estas intermitências. Para aproveitamento em grande escala, os reservatórios hidrelétricos (de usinas hidrelétricas convencionais com reservatório e usinas hidrelétricas reversíveis) representam a tecnologia mais madura e amplamente aproveitada para armazenamento de energia elétrica na forma de energia potencial no volume de água. Isto faz destes uma opção importante a ser incluída no projeto de um sistema autônomo híbrido de geração de energia. Segundo diferentes autores consultados, o software HOMER (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables) é a ferramenta mais amplamente utilizada em pesquisas relacionadas à simulação e configuração ótima deste tipo de sistemas. Esta tese apresenta um conjunto de procedimentos para determinar, em nível de pré-viabilidade, a configuração ótima (em termos do custo presente líquido) e o conjunto de arranjos viáveis de um sistema autônomo de geração de energia incluindo fontes renováveis intermitentes e reservatórios hidrelétricos. O software HOMER é aplicado na simulação e avaliação dos sistemas híbridos dos estudos de caso hipotéticos do presente trabalho, utilizados para validar os métodos propostos. Estes exemplos foram criados a partir de dados reais relacionados ao Estado de Rio Grande do Sul. Os procedimentos descritos são aplicáveis a qualquer região do mundo onde exista um local com potencial para reservatórios hidrelétricos, assim como dados de disponibilidade e custos relacionados a fontes renováveis intermitentes. Além de determinar a configuração ótima e o conjunto de arranjos viáveis, os resultados obtidos indicam que os procedimentos descritos podem ajudar na definição da melhor utilização de um local com potencial hidrelétrico. Igualmente, permitem estimar a quantidade de eletricidade excedente que poderia ser recuperada através de usinas reversíveis. Os resultados mostram que configuração ótima depende de muitos fatores, tais como restrições hidrológicas, a carga a ser atendida e o custo de geração de cada fonte. / Global interest and investments in renewable energy sources has increased considerably in recent years. These technologies have the advantage of using locally available resources, reducing dependence on external energy sources. However, most renewable energy technologies suffer from an intermittent characteristic due to the diurnal and seasonal patterns of the natural resources needed for power generation. Energy Storage is the most used technique to buffer this intermittency. For large-scale applications, hydropower reservoirs (of conventional and pumped storage plants) are the most mature and the most widely employed technology for electricity storage in the form of potential energy. For this reason, a hydropower reservoir is a suitable option to consider including in an autonomous hybrid power system. According to many authors, the HOMER model (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables) is the most widely used tool in research studies related to simulation and optimal design of this type of systems. This thesis presents some procedures to define, as a pre-feasibility assessment, the optimal configuration (in terms of Net Present Cost) and set of feasible designs of an autonomous hybrid power system that includes intermittent renewable energy sources and hydropower reservoirs. The HOMER software is used for simulating and evaluating the hybrid power systems of the hypothetical case studies, used to validate the proposed methods. These examples were created based on real data related to the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The procedures described can be adapted to any other region of the world where exists a site suitable for the construction of hydropower reservoirs, along with available data regarding intermittent renewable sources and generation costs. Besides defining the optimal configuration and the set of feasible designs, the results indicate that the procedures explained could help in the definition of the best use of a site with hydropower potential. Likewise, these methods can also be used to estimate how much excess electricity can be recovered by means of pumped storage hydropower. The results show that the optimal system design depends on many factors such as hydrological constraints, average load to serve and energy cost of each source.

O interesse mundial e os investimentos em fontes renováveis de energia têm aumentado consideravelmente nos últimos anos. Estas tecnologias têm a vantagem de aproveitar os recursos disponíveis localmente, reduzindo a dependência de fontes externas. Entretanto, um dos principais problemas associados a muitas das tecnologias de energias renováveis é sua imprevisibilidade ou intermitência. O armazenamento de energia é a técnica mais utilizada para moderar estas intermitências. Para aproveitamento em grande escala, os reservatórios hidrelétricos (de usinas hidrelétricas convencionais com reservatório e usinas hidrelétricas reversíveis) representam a tecnologia mais madura e amplamente aproveitada para armazenamento de energia elétrica na forma de energia potencial no volume de água. Isto faz destes uma opção importante a ser incluída no projeto de um sistema autônomo híbrido de geração de energia. Segundo diferentes autores consultados, o software HOMER (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables) é a ferramenta mais amplamente utilizada em pesquisas relacionadas à simulação e configuração ótima deste tipo de sistemas. Esta tese apresenta um conjunto de procedimentos para determinar, em nível de pré-viabilidade, a configuração ótima (em termos do custo presente líquido) e o conjunto de arranjos viáveis de um sistema autônomo de geração de energia incluindo fontes renováveis intermitentes e reservatórios hidrelétricos. O software HOMER é aplicado na simulação e avaliação dos sistemas híbridos dos estudos de caso hipotéticos do presente trabalho, utilizados para validar os métodos propostos. Estes exemplos foram criados a partir de dados reais relacionados ao Estado de Rio Grande do Sul. Os procedimentos descritos são aplicáveis a qualquer região do mundo onde exista um local com potencial para reservatórios hidrelétricos, assim como dados de disponibilidade e custos relacionados a fontes renováveis intermitentes. Além de determinar a configuração ótima e o conjunto de arranjos viáveis, os resultados obtidos indicam que os procedimentos descritos podem ajudar na definição da melhor utilização de um local com potencial hidrelétrico. Igualmente, permitem estimar a quantidade de eletricidade excedente que poderia ser recuperada através de usinas reversíveis. Os resultados mostram que configuração ótima depende de muitos fatores, tais como restrições hidrológicas, a carga a ser atendida e o custo de geração de cada fonte. / Global interest and investments in renewable energy sources has increased considerably in recent years. These technologies have the advantage of using locally available resources, reducing dependence on external energy sources. However, most renewable energy technologies suffer from an intermittent characteristic due to the diurnal and seasonal patterns of the natural resources needed for power generation. Energy Storage is the most used technique to buffer this intermittency. For large-scale applications, hydropower reservoirs (of conventional and pumped storage plants) are the most mature and the most widely employed technology for electricity storage in the form of potential energy. For this reason, a hydropower reservoir is a suitable option to consider including in an autonomous hybrid power system. According to many authors, the HOMER model (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables) is the most widely used tool in research studies related to simulation and optimal design of this type of systems. This thesis presents some procedures to define, as a pre-feasibility assessment, the optimal configuration (in terms of Net Present Cost) and set of feasible designs of an autonomous hybrid power system that includes intermittent renewable energy sources and hydropower reservoirs. The HOMER software is used for simulating and evaluating the hybrid power systems of the hypothetical case studies, used to validate the proposed methods. These examples were created based on real data related to the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The procedures described can be adapted to any other region of the world where exists a site suitable for the construction of hydropower reservoirs, along with available data regarding intermittent renewable sources and generation costs. Besides defining the optimal configuration and the set of feasible designs, the results indicate that the procedures explained could help in the definition of the best use of a site with hydropower potential. Likewise, these methods can also be used to estimate how much excess electricity can be recovered by means of pumped storage hydropower. The results show that the optimal system design depends on many factors such as hydrological constraints, average load to serve and energy cost of each source.

Submitted by isabela.moljf@hotmail.com (isabela.moljf@hotmail.com) on 2017-07-03T11:17:42Z No. of bitstreams: 1 mateusfreitasbraga.pdf: 1732565 bytes, checksum: f8ebb1cc4fe4d9ecbd9cc50ba3eb3f2a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-08-07T21:17:21Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 mateusfreitasbraga.pdf: 1732565 bytes, checksum: f8ebb1cc4fe4d9ecbd9cc50ba3eb3f2a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-07T21:17:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 mateusfreitasbraga.pdf: 1732565 bytes, checksum: f8ebb1cc4fe4d9ecbd9cc50ba3eb3f2a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-20 / Cresce a cada dia o n úmero de cargas não lineares conectadas aos diversos sistemas el étricos, seja em ní vel de transmissão ou distribui ção. Como consequência desse crescimento, e possí vel encontrar casos de consumidores enfrentando problemas relacionados a desarmes de disjuntores e sobreaquecimento de condutores, entre outros efeitos indesejados. Tomando um desses casos como base para este estudo, esta disserta ção tem o objetivo de avaliar e propor uma solu ção para uma rede monof asica real, que possivelmente e comum a outros consumidores. A carga monof ásica composta por lumin árias a LED (t picas cargas não lineares) e cargas indutivas se apresenta aos terminais da fonte com um comportamento de elevado conte udo harmônico (THD) de corrente e baixo fator de potência. Essa condi ção adversa pode ser mitigada de diversas maneiras, como por exemplo pela a ção de um fi ltro passivo,fi ltro ativo ou ainda fi ltro h brido (o qual e composto por uma combina ção dos dois primeiros). Ser a proposto nesta disserta ção uma metodologia de projeto relacionada a aplica ção de um fi ltro hi brido monof ásico visando corrigir o fator de potência e reduzir o conte udo harmônico de corrente presente na fonte, tomando como base as caracterí sticas do sistema avaliado em uma ind ústria gr áfi ca t ípica. Serão investigadas algumas con gura ções de filtros com o objetivo de mitigar problemas de Qualidade de Energia El étrica. Como consequência, ser a desenvolvida a an álise matem atica da topologia adotada e o projeto do controlador, baseado em um controlador proporcional-ressonante e na Teoria p-q Monof asica. A veri ca ção da solu ção proposta e sustentada pelos resultados de simula ção obtidos via software PSIM. / The amount of non-linear loads connected to the various electrical systems grows on a daily basis, regardless those loads are tied to a transmission or distribution bar. As a consequence of this growth, it is possible to nd cases of consumers facing problems such as tripping of breakers and cables overheating, among other undesired e ects. Taking one of these cases as the focus of this study, this dissertation aims to evaluate and propose a solution to a real single-phase system, which could be considered similar to other consumers. The single-phase load composed of LED luminaires (typical non-linear load) and inductive loads presents high THD and low power factor behavior at source terminals. This condition can be mitigated by using some well-known techniques, such as passive lters, active lters or hybrid lters, (which are composed by the combination of the former two). This Master document Thesis proposes a design methodology of a single-phase hybrid lter aiming power factor correction and reduction of the harmonic content of the current delivered by the AC power supply when feeding a typical printing factory. It will be reviewed and discussed some possible lter con gurations aimed to solve the case under evaluation. It is also included the mathematical analysis of the proposed topology, along with the design of the control system of the inverter. The Single-Phase p-q Theory is reviewed in order to design the control. The closed-loop control is desinged by a proportional-resonant compensator. Simulation results, by employing the PSIM software, are provided aiming to validate the solution proposed.

Cette thèse est une contribution à l'étude des systèmes hybrides éoliens-photovoltaïques avec batteries sur plusieurs aspects : évaluation des sources, modélisation, simulation, optimisation du dimensionnement et enfin commande et supervision. Ainsi, dans un premier temps, une étude d'impact sur l'évaluation du potentiel en énergies renouvelables sur un site donné en prenant en compte la consommation dans un habitat résidentiel (période et méthode d'acquisition des données, techniques d'évaluation, ...) est présentée. Puis, les modèles énergétiques des différents composants du système ainsi que les aspects économiques et écologiques sont définis. L'ensemble est représenté à l'aide du logiciel Matlab/Simulink. Ensuite, une méthodologie d'optimisation du dimensionnement du système multi-sources est développée et comparée à plusieurs approches, allant d'une optimisation mono-objective à une multi-objective et évaluant le coût économique et écologique de chacune de ces solutions. Une solution « pratique » est retenue pour les composants PV, éolien et batteries du système final afin d'en évaluer la viabilité énergétique, économique et écologique. Les résultats montrent un impact environnemental faible et un coût raisonnable du point de vue économique ainsi qu'une satisfaction de la charge dans les limites tolérées par l'usager. La méthode développée de dimensionnement est comparée à un outil commercial existant. Enfin, un banc expérimental PV-éolien avec batteries est mis en oeuvre avec une nouvelle technique de supervision basée sur le contrôle des courants et l'estimation de l'état de charge des batteries. / This thesis is a contribution to the study of photovoltaic-wind-battery hybrid systems for several aspects: source evaluation, modeling and simulation, design optimization and finally control and supervision. Thus, an impact study on the evaluation of renewable energy potential at a given site taking into account consumption in residential housing (period and method of data acquisition, evaluation techniques...) is presented. In addition, all the components of the system are modeled and economic and ecological aspects are defined in order to make an overall assessment of various system configurations. All models are represented using Matlab/Simulink tool. Then, a methodology for single and multi-objective design optimization of a multi-source system is developed to minimize system Life Cycle Cost (LCC), Embodied Energy (EE) and Loss of Power Supply Probability (LPSP). A "practice solution" is thus retained and evaluated. Results show a low environmental impact and a reasonable economic cost as well as a satisfaction of the load within the limits tolerated by the user. Besides, a very convincing comparison of the developed sizing method to an existing commercial tool is presented. At the end, an experimental PV-wind-battery tested is developed in laboratory to ensure a quasi-realistic emulation of hybrid system behavior for different configurations. Accordingly, a new supervision strategy based on currents control and battery state of charge estimation is successfully validated.

An exponentially growing global population, power demands, pollution levels and, on the other hand, rapid advances in means of communication have made the public aware of the complex energy situation. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has vast open land, an abundance of fossil fuel, a small population but has always been among the front-runners where the development and utilisation of clean sources of energy are concerned. Several studies on wind, solar and geothermal sources of energy have been conducted in Saudi Arabia. Solar photovoltaic (pv) has been used for a long time in many applications such as cathodic protection, communication towers and remotely located oil field installations. Recently, a 2MW grid-connected pv power plant has been put online and much larger solar desalination plants are in planning stage. Wind resource assessment, hub height optimisation, grid-connected wind farm and hybrid power system design were conducted in this study using existing methods. Historical daily mean wind speed data measured at 8 to 12metres above ground level at national and international airports in the kingdom over a period of 37 years was used to obtain long-term annual and monthly mean wind speeds, annual mean wind speed trends, frequency distribution, Weibull parameters, wind speed maps, hub height optimisation and energy yield using an efficient modern wind turbine of 2.75MW rated power. A further detailed analysis (such as estimation of wind shear exponent, Weibull parameters at different heights, frequency distribution at different heights, energy yield and plant capacity factor and wind speed variation with height) was conducted using wind speed measurements made at 20, 30 and 40metres above ground level. As a first attempt, an empirical correlation was developed for the estimation of near-optimal hub height (HH = 142.035 * (α) + 40.33) as a function of local wind shear exponent (α) with a correlation coefficient of 97%. This correlation was developed using the energy yield from a wind turbine of 1 000kW rated power and wind speed and local exponent for seven locations in Saudi Arabia. A wind-pv-diesel hybrid power system was designed and specifications were made for a remotely located village, which is being fed 100% by diesel power generating units. The proposed system, if developed, will offset around 35% of the diesel load and therefore will result in decreased air pollution by almost the same amount. The developed wind speed maps, the frequency distributions and estimated local wind shear exponents for seven locations and energy yield will be of great help in defining the further line of action and policy-building towards wind power development and utilisation in the kingdom. The study also recommends conducting a wind measurement campaign using tall towers with wind measurements at more than one height and estimating the local wind shear exponents and developing a wind atlas for the kingdom. The study further states that a grid-connected wind farm of moderate capacity of 40MW should be developed using turbines of varying rated powers. The wind speed data was also analysed using wavelet transform and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to understand the fluctuation in wind speed time series for some of the stations. It is also recommended that policy-makers should take firm decision on the development of hybrid power systems for remotely located populations which are not yet connected with the grid. There are two challenges which need research: one is the effect of dust on the moving and structural elements of the wind turbines and the second is the effect of high prevailing temperatures on the performance and efficiency of the same. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / PhD / Unrestricted

Globally, there are approximately 900 000 telecommunication radio base station sites (RBS-sites)located in areas without access to the electrical grid. Traditionally, these sites are powered by dieselgenerators, consuming large amounts of fossil diesel fuel. Diesel combustion is connected both toenvironmental impacts and high economical expenses for the mobile operators. As the mobilenetwork expansion is increasingly located in off-grid areas of developing countries, the search forrenewable power alternatives has been intensified. This Master thesis presents results from a life cycle assessment (LCA) of photovoltaic and windturbine hybrid power configurations for off-grid RBS-sites. The LCA covers environmental impactsfrom all life cycle activities of the hybrid system: from raw material extraction, manufacturing, andtransportation, to on-site usage, and disposal. To enable assessment of variable hybrid configurations, four scalable sub-models were constructed:one diesel sub-model including the generator and yearly diesel consumption, one back-up batterysub-model, one PV module sub-model and one wind turbine sub-model. Included in the sub-modelswere required site equipment; e.g. foundations for generators, PV modules and battery banks, powerconverters, fuel tanks and possible housings. The number of generators, liters of fuel consumed peryear, number of battery cells, square meters of PV module and number of wind turbines were set asvariables. Hereby RBS-sites with different capacities and availability of renewable source could bemodeled. A hybrid configuration including 21 square meters photovoltaic modules, one wind turbine, a storageof 36 (12 V) batteries and one generator back-up consuming 1500 liters of diesel fuel per year wasevaluated. The hybrid site represents between 11 and 16 percent of the different environmentalimpact potentials, global warming potential specifically representing 13 percent, caused by acorresponding traditional diesel site consuming 20000 liters of fuel per year. The most importantparameters influencing the environmental performance of the renewable hybrid site following thediesel fuel production and combustion are the production energy mix and energy intensive processesincluding the up-stream silicon and lead processing. The thesis confirmed great environmental benefits of using wind and solar power at RBS-sites. Theadditional gain of applying wind power when feasible to decrease the PV module area or batterycapacity required was also demonstrated. The great importance of manufacturing location andelectricity mix should encourage Ericsson to map supplier manufacturing locations, searchingpossibilities to decrease the environmental impacts from the manufacturing phase of the differentsub-systems. / Idag finns det omkring 5 miljoner radiobasstationer i det i det globala telekomnätet, varav 900000 ärbelägna i områden utan tillgång till elektricitet. Traditionellt drivs dessa stationer av dieselgeneratorersom konsumerar stora mängder diesel. Dieselförbränningen bidrar både till lokala och globalamiljöeffekter samt höga driftkostnader för mobiloperatörerna. Expansionen av mobilnätet sker i alltstörre utsträckning i områden i utvecklingsländer utan elförsörjning, vilket har ökat intresset föralternativa kraftkällor. Inom examensarbetet har ett redskap för jämförande livscykelanalys (LCA) av förnyelsebara krafthybridlösningarför radiobasstationer utvecklats. Hybriderna kombinerar solceller och vindturbinermed dieselförbränning och batterier. Genom att använda LCA inkluderas miljöeffekter från alla steg i hybridsystemets livscykel; frånutvinning av råmaterial och tillverkning av sub-system, transport, användning på RBS-siten till denslutliga avvecklingen. För att kunna utvärdera olika hybridkonfigurationer skapades 4 olika delmodeller: en delmodell fördieselförbränning innefattande generator och dieselkonsumption, en batteri-delmodell, en PVdelmodellsamt en vindturbin-delmodell. Delmodellerna inkluderar även nödvändiga komponentersom betonggrund till generatorer, PV-modulerna och batteribanken. Antal dieselgeneratorer,battericeller, vindturbiner samt PV-moduler och liter dieselkonsumption kan varieras för att simuleraen specifik anläggning. En hybridlösning med 21 m2 solceller, en vindturbin, 36 stycken (12V) battericeller och endieselgenerator som konsumerar 1500 liter diesel per år analyserades. Hybridlösningen ger upphovtill miljöeffekter motsvarande mellan 11 och 16 procent, global uppvärmning motsvarande 13procent, av miljöeffekterna orsakade av en traditionell dieselkonfiguration som konsumerar omkring20000 liter diesel per år. Betydelsefulla parametrar som påverkar miljöeffekterna frånhybridlösningen förutom produktion och förbränning av diesel är vilken elektricitetsmix somanvänds vid tillverkning av de olika komponenterna och energiintensiva processer som kisel- ochblyframställning. Resultaten tydliggör de stora minskningar av miljöeffekterna som en övergång från dieselförbränningtill sol- och vindkraft på RBS-anläggningar kan ge. Den relativa förbättringen av att installeravindturbiner för att minimera mängden sol- och battericeller har även visats. Betydelsen avproduktionsplats och elektricitetsmix för den totala miljöpåverkan bör motivera Ericsson attkartlägga och välja tillverkare som innebär ett litet bidrag till de totala miljöeffekterna.

[pt] No atual ciclo de expansão do setor elétrico brasileiro está previsto um forte crescimento de fontes renováveis não despacháveis, por exemplo, as fontes eólica e solar fotovoltaica. Neste contexto, o conceito de usinas híbridas tem surgido como uma alternativa para que os riscos dos empreendimentos de geração de energia possam ser melhor gerenciados, além de proporcionar alternativas mais rentáveis no desenvolvimento de projetos desta natureza. A combinação de diferentes tecnologias tem o potencial de propiciar efeitos sinérgicos no desenvolvimento e na operação das usinas e, consequentemente, provocar redução de despesas e custos. O objetivo desta dissertação é apresentar uma abordagem metodológica para avaliar uma usina híbrida composta pelas tecnologias eólica e solar fotovoltaica, considerando dois dos principais fatores de riscos associados, ou seja, a aleatoriedade da geração do empreendimento e do preço da energia no mercado de curto prazo. Para o estudo de caso considerado, a aplicação da metodologia foi capaz de mensurar o ganho sinérgico com o desenvolvimento do arranjo híbrido. As análises de fluxo de caixa foram feitas em base mensal e horária, cujos resultados se mostraram próximos para a maior parte das situações estudadas. Foram realizadas análises de sensibilidade acerca do Montante de Uso do Sistema de Transmissão contratado, as quais indicaram a viabilidade de se contratar 30 por cento a 40 por cento menos do que hoje é obrigatório no setor elétrico brasileiro. Estas análises vieram acompanhadas do dimensionamento do quanto de sua produção o empreendimento deixa de injetar na rede básica em função de diferentes valores do MUST contratado. / [en] In the current expansion cycle of the Brazilian electricity sector, a strong growth of non-dispatchable renewable sources is expected, for example, wind and solar energy. In this context, the concept of hybrid power plants (HPP) has emerged as an alternative so that the risks of energy generation projects can be better managed, in addition to providing more profitable alternatives in the development of projects of this kind. The combination of different technologies has the potential to provide synergistic effects in the development and operation of plants and, consequently, to reduce expenses and costs. The aim of this work is to present a methodological approach to evaluate a HPP composed of wind and solar photovoltaic technologies, considering two of the main associated risk factors, that is, the randomness of the project s generation and the price of energy in the short-term market. For the case study considered, the application of the methodology was able to measure the synergistic gain with the development of the hybrid arrangement. Cash flow analyzes were performed on a monthly and hourly basis, whose results were similar for most of the situations studied. Sensitivity analyzes were carried out on the Amount of Use of the Transmission System (MUST) contracted, which indicated the feasibility of contracting 30 percent to 40 percent less than what is currently mandatory in the Brazilian electricity sector. These analyzes were followed by the dimensioning of how much of its production the project doesn t inject into the basic network due to different values of the MUST contracted.

[pt] A complementaridade entre os perfis de geração renovável tem sido amplamente explorada na literatura. No entanto, as estruturas regulatórias eeconômicas para usinas híbridas de energia apresentam desafios e oportunidades interessantes para investidores, reguladores e planejadores. Focando nomercado de energia brasileiro, este artigo propõe um cálculo unificado e isonômico de Garantia Física (GF) para geradores renováveis não controláveis, quenos permite 1) generalizar o conceito de GF para unidades híbridas e 2) capturar as sinergias regulatórias e econômicas entre as fontes. Com base na GFnão discriminatória proposta para usinas híbridas de energia, a co-otimizaçãodas estratégias de contratação de energia no mercado de futuro e da rede, o Montante de Uso do Sistema de Transmissão (MUST), é estudada, e seus incentivos econômicos são demonstrados. A participação ótima de fontes renováveisque compõem a geração da usina híbrida também é considerada no modelo eanalisada em nossos estudos de caso. Com base em dados reais do mercadode energia brasileiro, quantificamos os benefícios das estruturas e modelos demercado propostos para uma unidade híbrida típica de eólico-solar. / [en] The complementarity between renewable generation profiles has been widely explored in literature. Notwithstanding, the regulatory and economic frameworks for hybrid power plants add interesting challenges and opportunities for investors, regulators, and planners. Focusing on the Brazilian power market, this paper proposes a unified and isonomic firm energy certificate (FEC) calculation for non-controllable renewable generators, which allows us to 1) generalize the FEC concept for hybrid units and 2) capture the regulatory and economic synergies between sources. Based on the non-discriminatory FEC proposed for hybrid power plants, the co-optimization of both forward-market and network-access contracting strategies is studied, and its economic incentives are demonstrated. The optimal share of renewable sources composing the hybrid power plant is also considered in the model and analyzed in our case studies. Based on real data from the Brazilian power market, we quantify the benefits of the proposed market structures and model for a typical wind–solar hybrid unit.

The topic of this thesis is carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS), which is a technology that is currently being promoted by industries, scientists and governments, among others, in order to mitigate climate change despite a continued use of fossil fuels. Because of the complex nature of CCS and the risks it entails, it is controversial. The aim of this thesis is to analyse how the technology may be further developed in a responsible manner. In the first part of the thesis different methods for capturing CO2 from industrial processes as well as power plants are analysed. The aim is to identify early opportunities for CO2 capture, which is considered important because of the urgency of the climate change problem. Three potential early opportunities are studied: i) capturing CO2 from calcining processes such as cement industries by using the oxyfuel process, ii) capturing CO2 from pressurised flue gas, and iii) capturing CO2 from hybrid combined cycles. Each opportunity has properties that may make them competitive in comparison to the more common alternatives if CCS is realised. However, there are also drawbacks. For example, while capturing CO2 from pressurised flue gas enables the use of more compact capture plant designs as well as less expensive and less toxic absorbents, the concept is neither suitable for retrofitting nor has it been promoted by the large and influential corporations. The second part of the thesis has a broader scope than the first and is multidisciplinary in its nature with inspiration from the research field of Science and Technology Studies (STS). The approach is to critically analyse stakeholder percep-tions regarding CCS, with a specific focus on the CCS experts. The thesis sheds new light on the complexity and scientific uncertainty of CCS as well as on the optimism among many of its proponents. Because of the uncertain development when it comes to climate change, fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions, the conclusion is that CCS has to be further developed and demonstrated. A responsible strategy for a future development of CCS would benefit from: i) a search for win-win strategies, ii) increasing use of appropriate analytical tools such as life-cycle analysis, iii) a consideration of fossil fuel scarcity and increasing price volatility, iv) funding of unbiased research and v) increasing simultaneous investments in long-term solutions such as renewable energy alternatives and efficiency improvements. / QC 20100727

Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία συνιστά μια επισκόπηση του Συστήματος Ηλεκτρικής Ενέργειας της νήσου Ικαρίας. Πρόκειται για ένα Αυτόνομο Σύστημα Παραγωγής, που βασίζεται σε έναν Τοπικό Σταθμό Παραγωγής, ισχύος 14 MW, που λειτουργεί με εμβολοφόρες πετρελαιομηχανές. Σκοπός της εργασίας είναι τόσο η μελέτη του συγκεκριμένου συστήματος, αλλά και η γενικότερη προσέγγιση των ΣΗΕ, και ειδικά των ΑΣΠ με τις ιδιαιτερότητες που τα χαρακτηρίζουν. Στην συνέχεια χρησιμοποιείται το λογισμικό προσομοίωσης HOMER Energy, με το οποίο κατασκευάζεται ένα μοντέλο του ΣΗΕ. Το λογισμικό εκτελεί τεχνοοικονομική ανάλυση της λειτουργίας συστημάτων, σε όλο τον κύκλο ζωής τους, και εξάγει συμπεράσματα όσον αφορά την βιωσιμότητα και την βέλτιστη μορφή τους. Με το εργαλείο αυτό διερευνώνται ζητήματα όπως η δυνατότητα διείσδυσης Ανανεώσιμων Πηγών Ενέργειας στο ΑΣΠ Ικαρίας, καθώς και η μελλοντική λειτουργία του συστήματος, μετά την ένταξη του κατασκευαζόμενου Υβριδικού Ενεργειακού Έργου (αιολικού - υδροηλεκτρικού). Το πρότυπο αυτό έργο, ισχύος μέχρι 6,8 MW, θα επιτρέπει την αποθήκευση ενέργειας, με την μορφή της αντλησιοταμίευσης, σε δεξαμενή νερού. Η μελέτη του ΣΗΕ Ικαρίας συμπληρώνεται με την ανασκόπηση του ζητήματος των κεραυνικών πληγμάτων στις γραμμές μέσης τάσης, όπου γίνεται υπολογισμός των αναμενόμενων σφαλμάτων, σε αντιπαράθεση με καταγεγραμμένα, ενώ προτείνονται λύσεις για την μείωση των προβλημάτων που δημιουργούν οι υπερτάσεις. Η συλλογή των στοιχείων της εργασίας έγινε από επιτόπιες καταγραφές, από δεδομένα που μας διατέθηκαν και από δημοσιευμένες πληροφορίες. Τα στοιχεία αυτά παρουσιάζονται κατά την επισκόπηση, μαζί με απαραίτητες διευκρινήσεις και παραπομπές στην βιβλιογραφία. Στην συνέχεια με τα στοιχεία αυτά κατασκευάζεται το μοντέλο του συστήματος, γίνονται οι υπολογισμοί, και συγκρίνονται τα αποτελέσματα. Αφού στο 1ο Κεφάλαιο δοθούν οι απαραίτητες εισαγωγικές διευκρινήσεις για τα ΣΗΕ και τα ΑΣΠ, και μια αναφορά στις ΑΠΕ, παρουσιάζονται στο 2ο Κεφάλαιο γεωγραφικά στοιχεία για το νησί, και μια σύντομη ιστορική αναδρομή στο ενεργειακό του σύστημα. Η επισκόπηση του ΑΣΠ Ικαρίας ξεκινά στο 3ο Κεφάλαιο με τα στοιχεία της Παραγωγής ενέργειας, περιγράφοντας αναλυτικά τον ΤΣΠ, τις μονάδες και τις εγκαταστάσεις του και αναλύοντας την λειτουργία του. Περιγράφεται έπειτα μία εγκατεστημένη Ανεμογεννήτρια των 600 kW, εξηγείται η λειτουργία της και σημειώνεται η επίδρασή της στην παραγωγή. Παρουσιάζεται το Υβριδικό Ενεργειακό Έργο, οι αρχές λειτουργίας, τα επιμέρους στοιχεία και αναφέρεται η αναμενόμενη συμπεριφορά του. Στην συνέχεια στο 4ο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται η επισκόπηση της Διανομής ενέργειας. Παρουσιάζεται το εναέριο δίκτυο Μέσης Τάσης, ο εξοπλισμός των γραμμών και η γεωγραφική εξάπλωση. Περιγράφονται τα δίκτυα διανομής Χαμηλής Τάσης, από τους Υποσταθμούς μέχρι τους καταναλωτές. Στο 5ο Κεφάλαιο η λειτουργία του ΣΗΕ εξετάζεται σαν σύνολο, με στοιχεία για την παραγόμενη ενέργεια, 28 GWh ετησίως, την εποχιακή και ημερήσια διακύμανση της ισχύος και την μελλοντική αύξηση της κατανάλωσης. Επισημαίνονται έπειτα οι κυριότερες αιτίες σφαλμάτων, οι μηχανισμοί δημιουργίας των συμβάντων κυρίως από καιρικά φαινόμενα, καθώς και η καταγραφή και η αποκατάσταση των βλαβών. Τέλος, στο 6ο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται η μελλοντική εξέλιξη του συστήματος, μετά την ένταξη του Υβριδικού Έργου, την αναβάθμιση του ΤΣΠ και του δικτύου ΜΤ, και οι προοπτικές για επιπλέον ΑΠΕ. Εκτός από τα Αιολικά συστήματα, εξετάζονται τα Φωτοβολταϊκά και η Γεωθερμία. Αναφέρεται και η ενδεχόμενη διασύνδεση του νησιού με το ηπειρωτικό δίκτυο της χώρας. Στο 7ο κεφάλαιο γίνεται η προσομοίωση του ΣΗΕ, με το λογισμικό HOMER. Παρουσιάζεται το πρόγραμμα, και οι οικονομικές έννοιες που χρησιμοποιεί για την αξιολόγηση των συστημάτων. Η διαδικασία μοντελοποίησης παρουσιάζεται αναλυτικά. Αρχικά κατασκευάζεται το μοντέλο του παρόντος συστήματος, όπου διαπιστώνεται η ορθότητα του μοντέλου σε σχέση με το πραγματικό σύστημα, και σημειώνεται η θετική οικονομική επίδραση της Α/Γ στο ΑΣΠ. Από την άλλη, διαφαίνεται η αδυναμία του προγράμματος να αντιληφθεί τα όρια διείσδυσης ΑΠΕ. Στην συνέχεια, λαμβάνοντας υπόψιν το παραπάνω ζήτημα, εμπλουτίζεται το μοντέλο με επιπλέον ΑΠΕ, και προκύπτει το συμπέρασμα ότι συμφέρει πρωτίστως η εγκατάσταση άλλων 2 Α/Γ, και 200 kWp Φ/Β συστημάτων, αλλά δευτερευόντως και άλλων συνδυασμών, μέχρι 7 Α/Γ συνολικά. Έπειτα, κατασκευάζεται το μοντέλο του Υβριδικού, προσεγγιστικά, λόγω έλλειψης υποστήριξης από το HOMER. Τα αποτελέσματα της εξομοίωσης της λειτουργίας του είναι σε συμφωνία με τα αναμενόμενα. Προκύπτουν επίσης τα εξής συμπεράσματα: (α) Το Έργο είναι οικονομικά βιώσιμο. (β) Η οικονομική επίδοση του Έργου βελτιώνεται με δέσμευση επιπλέον νερού στις δεξαμενές για αντλησιοταμίευση. (γ) Το Έργο υποστηρίζει οικονομικώς Ανεμογεννήτριες μέχρι 10 MW και Φ/Β 2,5 MWp. (δ) Το Έργο δεν επαρκεί για την μελλοντική αύξηση της κατανάλωσης, ακόμα και με επιπλέον ΑΠΕ, εκτός και αν αυξηθεί παράλληλα η ισχύς του ΤΣΠ. Η εργασία ολοκληρώνεται στο 8ο Κεφάλαιο, με το ζήτημα της θεωρητικής πρόβλεψης σφαλμάτων από κεραυνούς. Αφού παρουσιαστεί το φαινόμενο και οι επιπτώσεις του στις γραμμές, γίνεται υπολογισμός των αναμενόμενων σφαλμάτων σε όλο το δίκτυο ΜΤ της Ικαρίας, μήκους 120 km, με την χρήση (α) της απλής μεθόδου Ισοδύναμης Συλλεκτήριας Επιφάνειας, και (β) της μεθόδου που προτείνεται από τον κανονισμό IEEE-1410, περί βελτίωσης της αντικεραυνικής συμπεριφοράς ηλεκτρικών γραμμών. Τα αποτελέσματα δείχνουν πολύ λιγότερα σφάλματα από τα καταγεγραμμένα κάθε χρόνο (90 έναντι 175 μέσο όρο). Εξηγούνται οι βασικότερες αιτίες, όπως η γενικότητα των υπολογισμών, η ασάφεια στις καταγραφές, αλλά και το γεγονός ότι συγκεκριμένα γεωγραφικά σημεία καταπονούνται ιδιαίτερα από κεραυνικά πλήγματα και είναι υπεύθυνα για πολλά σφάλματα. Το τελευταίο, επιδεικνύεται με την μελέτη ενός ορεινού εκτεθειμένου κλάδου των γραμμών, μήκους 2 km, που παρουσιάζει 20,5 ιδιαίτερα καταστροφικά σφάλματα ετησίως, έναντι των 1,5 που αναμένονται. Προτείνονται τέλος κάποιοι οικονομικοί τρόποι προστασίας, με περισσότερους απαγωγείς υπερτάσεων και βελτίωση της γείωσης και της στάθμης μόνωσης της γραμμής. / This diploma thesis is an overview of the Electrical Power System of Ikaria Island. It is an Autonomous Production System, based on a Local Station with diesel engines. The thesis describes the Station, an installed Wind Turbine, and the Hybrid Power Plant under construction. It presents the Distribution System, consisting of overhead medium voltage power lines, as well as the low voltage distribution wiring. It includes information about the power production, the main system faults, and the future development. The study is supplemented by a simulation of the system, using HOMER Energy software, in order to investigate the renewable penetration potential, and to validate the operation of the Hybrid Power Plant. The thesis is concluded with the estimation of lightning faults on the power lines of the island's grid.