The main purpose of this thesis is to find out the economic factors that contributed to the successful promotion of Mandarin during martial law period, and serve as a reference for future language planning. Taiwan used to be ruled by Dutch, Koxinga, Qing dynasty, Japan, and the Republic of China (ROC) government. Thus, Taiwanese society gradually becomes multiethnic, multicultural, and, to my greatest concern, multilingual. Each ruling power had tried to impose different degrees of language policies on Taiwan, particularly Japan and the ROC government that were eager to establish an official language. Eventually, the successful popularization of Mandarin is overwhelming. A number of theories and materials regarding the relationship between language and economy have been reviewed. First of all, it is argued that language could be objectified and valued. Thus, different language varieties contain different values. Second, according to rational choice theory, people make choices that would maximize their benefits. The implication is that people choose to learn a certain language variety that benefits them most. Third, as an economy becomes more and more advanced, linguistic diversity might be reduced. The ethnolinguistic groups, language varieties, and language history of Taiwan are also discussed. There are four major ethnolinguistic groups in Taiwan: Hoklo, Hakka, aboriginal people, and Chinese Mainlanders. As for language varieties, Hoklo, Hakka, Mandarin, Taiwan Guoyu, and aboriginal languages are separately dealt with. The language history of Taiwan is divided into the evolution of spoken and written language of Taiwan. Then, the economic value of each language varieties in Taiwan during martial law period is assessed. The result is that Mandarin possessed the highest economic value. Besides, some features of economic development, such as structural change, the emergence of social classes, the desire to gain upward social mobility, expansion in education, and examination systems that favored Mandarin, also facilitated the spread of Mandarin. And through a comparison between the Japan-led and ROC-led island-wide language directives, this thesis argues that political factors alone could not sufficiently explain the successful promotion of an official language. Economic factors must be taken into account as well. Finally, some suggestions are proposed for the maintenance and revitalization of Hoklo, Hakka, and aboriginal languages.

Tok Pisin is the most prevailing common language in Papua New Guinea. It was originally an English lexifier pidgin language and has developed as the virtual universal lingua franca in this multilingual country where over 850 indigenous languages are spoken today (Nekitel 1998). The term Tok Pisin covers a large number of varieties due to the various social and linguistic backgrounds of its speakers. Traditionally, the rural varieties which are spoken in Coastal and Island areas are regarded as mainstream Tok Pisin and previous studies have mainly focused on these varieties. However, since the social and linguistic situation in the country has continuously changed and the language contact between Tok Pisin and both substratum languages and the superstratum language, English, continues, the varieties which were regarded as “non-standard” seem to play an important role, especially in the context of language contact and language shift today. Therefore, with respect to the roles that “non-standard” varieties play and their features, many gaps still remain. Most studies have focused on standard varieties. In order to fill in the gaps, this study will address the issues of language contact and language shift in Tok Pisin, mainly focusing on two “nonstandard” varieties. One is Highlands Pidgin which is spoken mainly in the Highlands area of the country. Because of the increase of emigrant population from Highlands to other regions, it seems that Highlands Pidgin impacts on other regional varieties of Tok Pisin. First, the characteristics which have been considered to be Highlands features are reconsidered by reanalysing previous studies and examining the author’s primary data. Then the role that Highlands Pidgin plays in the current language situation in Papua New Guinea is discussed. The other “non-standard” variety considered here is the anglicised variety. It has been pointed out that Tok Pisin is currently undergoing “decreolisation”, that is, it is gradually losing its own features and assimilating to English. However, the degree of the anglicisation can very with situations, speakers and topics and, although earlier studies provide many important findings, few recent studies have been undertaken. Thus, the degree of anglicisation is examined according to each linguistic component including phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax based on primary data. As one of the parameters of anglicisation, code switching between Tok Pisin and English is also examined using the Matrix Language-Frame model proposed by Myers-Scotton (1993). Following the analysis of the two varieties, some sociolinguistic considerations are provided in order to capture the situation in which language contact and language shift take place. In conclusion, based on the author’s observations and analysis, this study proposes the argument that there is little reason to rule out the “non-standard” varieties and that Tok Pisin has been a language completely distinct from English, which supports Smith’s (2002) viewpoint. Also, it illustrates a description of current Tok Pisin which coexists with English. Whether the situation continues or not in the future is open to question; however, the structural features of Tok Pisin and its remarkable vitality which are revealed here can inform the study of language contact, language shift and language maintenance. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1374814 / Thesis (M.A.) - University of Adelaide, School of Humanities, 2009

Tok Pisin is the most prevailing common language in Papua New Guinea. It was originally an English lexifier pidgin language and has developed as the virtual universal lingua franca in this multilingual country where over 850 indigenous languages are spoken today (Nekitel 1998). The term Tok Pisin covers a large number of varieties due to the various social and linguistic backgrounds of its speakers. Traditionally, the rural varieties which are spoken in Coastal and Island areas are regarded as mainstream Tok Pisin and previous studies have mainly focused on these varieties. However, since the social and linguistic situation in the country has continuously changed and the language contact between Tok Pisin and both substratum languages and the superstratum language, English, continues, the varieties which were regarded as “non-standard” seem to play an important role, especially in the context of language contact and language shift today. Therefore, with respect to the roles that “non-standard” varieties play and their features, many gaps still remain. Most studies have focused on standard varieties. In order to fill in the gaps, this study will address the issues of language contact and language shift in Tok Pisin, mainly focusing on two “nonstandard” varieties. One is Highlands Pidgin which is spoken mainly in the Highlands area of the country. Because of the increase of emigrant population from Highlands to other regions, it seems that Highlands Pidgin impacts on other regional varieties of Tok Pisin. First, the characteristics which have been considered to be Highlands features are reconsidered by reanalysing previous studies and examining the author’s primary data. Then the role that Highlands Pidgin plays in the current language situation in Papua New Guinea is discussed. The other “non-standard” variety considered here is the anglicised variety. It has been pointed out that Tok Pisin is currently undergoing “decreolisation”, that is, it is gradually losing its own features and assimilating to English. However, the degree of the anglicisation can very with situations, speakers and topics and, although earlier studies provide many important findings, few recent studies have been undertaken. Thus, the degree of anglicisation is examined according to each linguistic component including phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax based on primary data. As one of the parameters of anglicisation, code switching between Tok Pisin and English is also examined using the Matrix Language-Frame model proposed by Myers-Scotton (1993). Following the analysis of the two varieties, some sociolinguistic considerations are provided in order to capture the situation in which language contact and language shift take place. In conclusion, based on the author’s observations and analysis, this study proposes the argument that there is little reason to rule out the “non-standard” varieties and that Tok Pisin has been a language completely distinct from English, which supports Smith’s (2002) viewpoint. Also, it illustrates a description of current Tok Pisin which coexists with English. Whether the situation continues or not in the future is open to question; however, the structural features of Tok Pisin and its remarkable vitality which are revealed here can inform the study of language contact, language shift and language maintenance. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1374814 / Thesis (M.A.) - University of Adelaide, School of Humanities, 2009

abstract: Although there are millions of Nahuatl speakers, the language is highly threatened. The dominant language of Coatepec de los Costales, a small village in Guerrero, Mexico, was historically Nahuatl, a Uto-Aztecan language, referred to by some as “Mexicano” (Messing, 2009). In the last 50 years, there has been a pronounced shift from Mexicano to Spanish in the village, and fewer than 10% of the residents currently speak Mexicano. Without intervention, the language will be lost in the village. The ultimate cause of language shift is a disconnect in transferring the Indigenous language from the older to the younger generations. In Coatepec, older Nahuatl speakers are not teaching their children the language. This recurring theme appears in case studies of language shift around the world. Using a conceptual framework that combines (1) a critical sociocultural approach to language policy; (2) Spolsky’s (2004) definition of language policy as language practices, ideologies or beliefs, and management; (3) the ethnography of language policy, and (3) Indigenous knowledges, I collected and analyzed data from a six-month ethnographic study of language loss and reclamation in Coatepec. Specifically, I looked closely at the mechanisms by which language ideologies, management, and practices were enacted among members of different generations, using a combination of observation, archival analysis, and in-depth ethnographic interviews. Seidman’s (2013) three-part interview sequence, which includes a focused life history, details of experience, and reflections on meaning, provided the framework for the interviews. What are the language ideologies and practices within and across generations in this setting? What language management strategies – tacit and official – do community members of different generations employ? This in-depth examination of language ideologies, practices, and management strategies is designed to illuminate not only how and why language shift is occurring, but the possibilities for reversing language shift as well. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Curriculum and Instruction 2016

Las diversas sociedades imprimen sobre el período de la niñez disímiles valoraciones, expectativas, derechos y obligaciones tanto para niños como para el resto del grupo social. Este artículo se interesa en abordar el papel de las prácticas y los usos de la lengua toba y el español durante las distintas etapas de la niñez. Desde una perspectiva etnográfico-antropológica, se analizará el caso de un asentamiento toba ubicado en las afueras de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires (Argentina) donde se evidencian signos de un proceso de desplazamiento de la lengua toba por el español. Como punto de partida se toma la propia categorización nativa de la niñez (nogotshaxac, literalmente: ‘la manera de ser niño/joven’ = nogot: ‘niño/joven’ y shaxac: ‘manera de ser’), y se concluye sistematizando los diferentes sentidos implícitos y explícitos que tienen las lenguas en los diferentes momentos de la vida. / This paper will analyze the relationship between language practices and childhood among Toba children. The study focused on a marginal urban setting in Buenos Aires where monolingual practices are replacing bilingual ones. Consequently, many children are rapidly shifting to Spanish and loosing their command of the Toba language. Through an ethnographic research, we observed native childhood categorization (nogotshaxac) to systematize the meanings, implicit and explicit, that languages have along different moments in children’s life.

Magister Artium - MA / The study explores the negotiation of identities through linguistic innovations such as codeswitching, code-mixing and differing language choices in different domains of home and school in Belhar. The focus is to examine how languages are used to negotiate class, age, generational, socio-economic, etc differences in selected schools and homes in the community of Belhar. The specific study objectives include the following: 1. To find out the linguistic options and identities (including hybrid identities), that are available to the Belhar community. 2. To explore how Afrikaans and English (and other languages) are used as linguistic resources in the community of Belhar. The Belvue Primary school was used as a vehicle to gain access to the families in Belhar which were used as case studies. The data was collected by observing learners in the classroom, interviewing educators, interviewing parents and observing linguistic practices in the homes/families of selected learners. Using poststructuralist coupled with the social constructionist approach the study is a clear departure from studies and paradigms current in vogue in South Africa, which have linked language and ethnic identity in unambiguous ways. These paradigms also see ethnic identity as fixed and communities as homogenous and language as having a one-to-one correlation with identity. However, these studies do not consider that identities are constructed and negotiated during interaction with others. In this regard it was found that individuals in the community of Belhar constantly construct and negotiate identity using language as central to the identity behaviour. Thus ultimately their language and identity cannot be described as pro-English or pro- Afrikaans.

The present qualitative study investigated Spanish language maintenance among a familial/friend group of ten Ecuadorians that live in Northern California. The participants completed a survey and participated in an interview from which I retrieved information about the importance of Spanish and English, their self-reported confidence in Spanish and English, language attitudes, language use in private/familial contexts, and language use in public/social contexts. Previous studies regarding language maintenance and language shift in California were primarily focused on the Mexican-American population. California has the fourth largest population of Ecuadorians in the United States, yet there are no maintenance and shift studies for Ecuadorians in California. The collectivism and communal style of living that permeate Ecuadorian culture make the current study particularly unique and adds to past research on factors that affect maintenance and shift. Findings indicate that many of the members of this community are part of a dense network. This appears to encourage positive language attitudes. As a result, Spanish is used in many public and private contexts, which may help Spanish to be maintained by future generations. However, the current study also sheds light on the level of impact that spousal language may have regarding maintenance or shift for the future generation. The findings show that households with an English monolingual parent show a shift of importance and emotional attachment from Spanish to English. Thus, future generations are likely to see a shift to English if they are in a household with an English monolingual mother but may have an identity associated with their heritage because of the dense network to which they belong. However, future generations in households with two parents who speak Spanish are likely to maintain Spanish due to the network density and overall language attitudes.

The English language holds a powerful role world-wide and is now used in some domains in Sweden. This has caused concern for the future of the Swedish language and whether or nor diglossia is underway. The aim of this dissertation is to investigate if there are differences in the attitudes towards the increasing use of English in Swedish society between two different populations of upper-secondary school students: a) students who attend the International Baccalaureate Programme (whose medium of instruction is English), and b) students who attend the Social Science Programme (whose medium of instruction is Swedish). The study investigates students’ pattern and language use and attitudes through the use of questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and reflective journals. The results show that the IB pupils are somewhat less positively disposed towards the increased influence of the English language in Swedish society and argue that it might pose a threat to the status of the Swedish language. However, the investigation also discloses that most IB pupils, to a much larger extent than the SP pupils, consider English paramount in order to succeed in today’s society. Furthermore, the results indicate that the IB pupils’ attitudes towards the expansion of the English language in Swedish society largely correspond to the main objective of Mål i mun, i.e. to protect the Swedish language as well as promote the English language. Key words: diglossia, domain, language shift, attitudes, semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, reflective journals

From 1890-1914, Argentina received a large influx of Italian immigrants who wanted to "hacer la América", or live the American dream of economic prosperity. With Italian immigrants representing nearly half of all immigrants entering Argentina, the government strived to create a new sense of Argentine pride and nationalism. The objective of this dissertation is to investigate and analyze the linguistic experience of Italian immigrants in Buenos Aires, Argentina, applying Pierre Bourdieu's theory of social space and linguistic markets, and contact language theories to explain the attrition and shift of the Italian language. This study identifies three relevant social spaces that contributed to the linguistic experience of Italian immigrants in Buenos Aires: 1). conventillos or immigrant housing 2.) school community, and 3.) mutual aid societies. Within each social space thrived a linguistic market which language played a key role in the way people interacted and identified with each other. First, the conventillos were part of an alternative linguistic market in which cocoliche, a transitional language, thrived as a way for Italians to communicate with immigrants from different countries. Second, the school community formed part of the legitimate linguistic market because education was mandated by the government. Third, the mutual aid societies formed part of the alternative linguistic market that not only helped immigrants adjust to their new home, but it also fostered a sense of common identity by renewing their traditional ties to their home country in addition to teaching standardized Italian to Italian immigrants who often spoke their own regional dialects. A comparison of the three social spaces and the role that the linguistic markets play in each of them shows that all three spaces, whether legitimate or alternative linguistic markets, were integral in the linguistic experience of the Italian immigrants and important factors in the attrition and shift of Italian to Spanish. / Spanish

Questa Tese la se fundamenta ntel àmbito dele risserche a rispeto del "bilinguismo e lìngue in contato" riferente al tema "manutenssion e sustituission del Talian ntea region de Alto Uruguai Gaucho". Versa sora el stùdio de caràter etnogeossossialinguìstico, macroanalìtico abrangendo diferenti posti de na àrea geogràfica significativa de due variante: el portoghese e i diversi dialeti resultanti dal so mescolamento con la lìngua italiana. Come ogetivi genèrichi la tese la ogetiva: a) Stabilir le cause pi relevante e la proporcionalità del so contributo ntel fomento e scambiamento dea lìngua orignària fora dal paese dea lìngua materna e che, ntel novo ambiente, la compartisse segnai de língua minoritària, sia par el pròpio contato dele diferense variante dea lìngua intrà de si stesso, sia par el vero contato con la lìngua magioritària del novo paese. b) Dar el so contributo par na revision del conceto sostitutivo e mortal linguìstico come um fato che sucede, sincrònica e diacronicamene sora el fenòmeno dea esistensa e permanensa dele lìngue, sicome sora el fonsionamento e la ligassion ntrà i sitema linguìstichi doperadi par i bilìngüe. c) Come resultante del studio prevede svèrdere le posssibilità de impianto de na política linguìstica par sodisfar le necessità dea region. El scopo el questiona polìtiche de fomento linguìstico indiressade a le minorie parlante e nó solamente par la manutenssion o pèrdita. El stùdio el camina in diression a la metodologia dialetològica pluridimensional e relassional che la combina la dialetologia del posto a la sossiolinguìstica par meso dea qual se constata in che punto e in che dimension el fenòmeno in question el se sucede, focalisando le sue interrelassion ntel so spassio. Próprio anca ntei stùdi geolinguìstichi poco se gà verificà sora i temi de questa natura. In questo senso, el presente stùdio se difere de altri aspeti sora language shift in general monopontual sentralisada nte na comunità bilìngue, quando se compara contesti diferenti e fatori condissionanti deversi nte na scala de punti, seanca che de nùmero un a quatro. La racolta de informassion in queste località se distende a la etapa de risserca dei aspeti istòrichi, statìstichi e demogràfichi e le interviste semidiretive con simultanietà de informanti. Scominsiando con la anàlise qualitativa dele interviste semidiressionade e dea quantificassion dei apuntamenti dele amostre statìstiche se riva a la identificassion dei fatori de manutenssion e pèrdita dea lìngua de imigrassion. Ga sucedesto na pérdita significativa del talian che la se vincula a fatori come la polìtica de represssion del Stato; a la funsion dea scola come instituission pùblica vinculadora de un insegno monolinguisante e monovarietàbile, fato solamente par meso dea utilisassion del portoghese; anca a la repulsa o mancansa del suporto institussional e al grado de urbanisassion insiemà a la mancansa de consientisassion linguìstica a rispeto del benefìssio del bilingüismo e del doparamento, manutenssion e svolgimento dea lìngua orignària. De altra sorte, vedemo chei fatori che mantien el talian i deventa unidi, con la maniere pi forte a la transmission intergenerassional e a la consentrassion demográfica del grupo de parlanti (omogeneità ètnica). Anca, convien distacar le atitùdine positive dei parlanti, in relación a la lìngua de origine e a la condission de isolamento dele comunità. / Esta Tese se desenvolve no âmbito de pesquisas sobre "bilinguismo e línguas em contato", referente ao tema "manutenção e substituição do talian na região do Alto Uruguai Gaúcho". Constitui-se em um estudo de caráter etnogeossociolinguístico, macroanalítico, envolvendo diferentes pontos de uma área geográfica significativa de confluência de duas variáveis - o português e as diferentes variedades dialetais provenientes da língua italiana. Como objetivos gerais, pretende: a) determinar os fatores mais relevantes e a proporção em que contribuíram para o fomento ou a substituição da língua originária de fora do país e que, no novo meio, compartilha traços de língua minoritária, seja pelo próprio contato das diferentes variantes da língua italiana entre si, seja pelo contato com a língua majoritária do novo país; b) contribuir para uma revisão do conceito de substituição e morte linguística como algo que se dá sincrônica e diacronicamente, na forma de um processo natural e irreversível, ampliando o conhecimento sobre o fenômeno da existência e permanência das línguas, bem como sobre o funcionamento e o entrelaçamento de sistemas linguísticos empregados por bilíngues; c) aportar, pelo resultado do estudo, possibilidades de implantação e implementação de uma política linguística voltada às necessidades da região. O enfoque volta-se para políticas de fomento linguístico dirigidas às minorias e não mais somente para a manutenção ou perda. O estudo segue a linha da metodologia dialetológica pluridimensional e relacional, que combina a dialetologia areal com a sociolinguística, através da qual se verifica em que pontos e em que dimensões e parâmetros o fenômeno em questão está ocorrendo, focalizando as suas interrelações no espaço. Mesmo nos estudos geolinguísticos, pouco se tem explorado temas dessa natureza. Neste sentido, o presente estudo distingue-se dos demais enfoques sobre language shift, geralmente monopontuais, centrados em uma comunidade bilíngue, ao comparar contextos diferentes e fatores condicionadores diversos em uma rede de pontos, mesmo que em número de apenas quatro. A coleta de dados nessas localidades incluiu as etapas de pesquisa dos aspectos históricos, estatísticos e demográficos e as entrevistas semidirigidas com simultaneidade de informantes. A partir da análise qualitativa das entrevistas semidirigidas e da quantificação dos dados das amostras estatísticas, os resultados identificaram diferentes fatores de manutenção e perda da língua de imigração. Houve perda significativa do talian que está vinculada a fatores como a política de repressão do Estado; ao papel da escola como instituição pública vinculadora de um ensino monolingualizador e monovarietal realizado somente através do uso do português; ao desprezo ou ausência de suporte institucional e ao grau de urbanização aliado à falta de uma conscientização linguística sobre os benefícios do bilinguismo e o uso e manutenção da língua de origem. Por outro lado, também se verifica que os fatores que mantêm o talian estão ligados, em maior força, à transmissão intergeracional e à concentração demográfica do grupo de fala (homogeneidade étnica). Também estão em destaque as atitudes positivas dos falantes em relação à língua de origem e o estado de isolamento das comunidades. / This Thesis is part of a group of researches on "bilingualism and languages in contact", related to the theme "maintenance and replacement of the talian in the Alto Uruguai Gaúcho region". It is a study with an ethnogeossociolinguistic, macro-analytic character, which includes different locations from a significant geographical area of the confluence of two variables - the Portuguese and the different dialects from the Italian language. Our general goals are: a) to determine the most important facts and their contribution to the promotion or replacement of the language from outside the country, which in the new environment shares traits of a minority language, either by the contact with different variants of the Italian language among themselves, or by the contact with the majority language of the new country; b) to contribute to the review of the replacement concept and linguistic death as something that occurs synchronic and diachronically as a natural and irreversible process, expanding the knowledge on the language existence and permanence phenomenon, as well as on the operation and intertwining of the linguistic systems employed by bilinguals; c) to point out, through the results of the study, possibilities of establishing and implementing a language policy geared to the needs of the region. The focus emphasizes the policies to encourage language targeted for minorities rather than for the maintenance and loss. The study follows the line of multidimensional and relational dialectology methodology, which combines the areal dialectology with the sociolinguistics, through which it can be checked in which points, dimensions and parameters the phenomenon in question is occurring, focusing on their interrelationships in space. Even in the geolinguistic studies, these themes have not been much exploited. Thus, this study differs from other approaches about language shift, which are generally monopontuals, and centered on a bilingual community, since it compares different contexts and diverse conditioning factors in a network of points, even though in the reduced number of four. The data collected in these communities included the stages of research of historical, statistical and demographic and semi-directed interviews with simultaneity of informants. From the qualitative analysis of the semi-directed interviews and the quantification of the data of statistical samples, the results showed different factors of maintenance and loss of the language of immigration. There was a significant loss of the talian that is linked to factors such as the policy of repression of the State; to the role of the school as a public institution in charge of a monolingual and monovarietal teaching achieved exclusively through the use of the Portuguese; to disregard or lack of institutional support and the degree of urbanization combined with the lack of linguistic awareness about the benefits of bilingualism, and the use and maintenance of the language of origin. On the other hand, it is also observed that the factors that maintain the talian are more strongly linked to the intergenerational transmission and demographic concentration of the speech group (ethnic homogeneity). Moreover, the positive attitudes of speakers in relation to the language of origin and the state of isolation of communities are highlighted.