The thesis begins an exploration of the way in which Japanese visual semiotics works. In this it focuses on the formal representations of visual elements: visual syntax. Specifically, this thesis examines the way in which visual representations are realisations of three types of semiotic metafunctions: the Ideational, Textual and Interpersonal. In order to gain a clear idea about Japanese visual semiotics, I compare them with British counterparts in a relatively minor way. There is some consideration of Japanese and British cultural value systems as revealed through an analysis of the visual. It is widely accepted that language is rule-governed, and that the rules of this system are closely related to the social and cultural environment in which they are produced. This is the basis of most work in sociolinguistics, of a very wide variety. The same assumption, however, is not normally made of other semiotic modes such as the visual. This study uses advertisements as the data; and it is through that data that the issue of visual semiotics is considered. Advertisements are examples par excellence of the connection of cultural values and visual semiotics; they are also a rich source for the study of visual communication, and are widely available and comparable across Japanese and British cultures. To some small extent it shows how similarly and differently they are manifested in Japanese and British examples. The findings of the thesis point to quite specific organizations of visual representations in Japanese culture, and to differences between the two cultures. Such differences give rise to different kinds of reading with different meanings, and are therefore of great significance in a cross-cultural semiotic environment.

This research is a practical attempt to develop academic writing pedagogy at secondary level in New Zealand because from interviews with teachers, personal experience and literature in the professional journal for teachers of English in New Zealand, English in Aotearoa, it appears that this would be a useful enterprise. Literature relating to this, and extending to the related contexts of the UK and Australia has been reviewed. The approach taken is an investigation of top-rated senior secondary writing in subject English, using elements of Hallidayan Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG). The concepts of SFG chiefly drawn upon, namely, Theme and linguistic metafunctions, and their application to the data are presented and explained. This grammatical model was chosen because it allows the interface of grammatical structure and linguistic function to be explored, which in turn permits insight into how the qualities of top-rated writing may be formulated grammatically. This insight may then become part of teaching resources in academic writing by way of both pre- and in-service training material for teachers. Over 100 top-rated English literature essays (graded by teachers) were collected from students, via their schools, so that the data obtained were authentic. Two samples were collected: timed and untimed writing. Each sentence of each essay was typed into one of nine Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, representing locations within the essay. The nine locations were: three introduction locations: initial sentence, medial sentences, terminal sentence; three paragraph locations (all paragraphs in the body of the essays, not introductions or conclusions): initial sentence, medial sentences, terminal sentence; and, three conclusion locations: initial sentence, medial sentences and terminal sentence. The initial grammatical elements and their metafunction(s) for each sentence were categorised. Percentages in each category for each location were calculated so that individual locations could be compared for grammatical and metafunctional characteristics. Grouped locations were also considered where this seemed felicitous; for instance, introductions were compared to conclusions or medial sentences compared to boundary sentences (initial and terminal). Comparisons were also made between the timed and untimed samples. The results showed that some grammatical structures could be associated with particular grouped locations and metafunctional characteristics were not independent of location. The research was also able to suggest grammatical means to achieve metafunctional effects that align with descriptors for writing given by examination boards. For example, clear, logical organisation of writing is highly valued by examination boards. This is achieved by means of elements that perform the textual linguistic metafunction. A variety of grammatical elements to perform this function and their most prominent locations were identified. It is intended that the findings may be a highly directed way to help teachers address some of the writing challenges faced by their students at secondary level.

This research is a practical attempt to develop academic writing pedagogy at secondary level in New Zealand because from interviews with teachers, personal experience and literature in the professional journal for teachers of English in New Zealand, English in Aotearoa, it appears that this would be a useful enterprise. Literature relating to this, and extending to the related contexts of the UK and Australia has been reviewed. The approach taken is an investigation of top-rated senior secondary writing in subject English, using elements of Hallidayan Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG). The concepts of SFG chiefly drawn upon, namely, Theme and linguistic metafunctions, and their application to the data are presented and explained. This grammatical model was chosen because it allows the interface of grammatical structure and linguistic function to be explored, which in turn permits insight into how the qualities of top-rated writing may be formulated grammatically. This insight may then become part of teaching resources in academic writing by way of both pre- and in-service training material for teachers. Over 100 top-rated English literature essays (graded by teachers) were collected from students, via their schools, so that the data obtained were authentic. Two samples were collected: timed and untimed writing. Each sentence of each essay was typed into one of nine Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, representing locations within the essay. The nine locations were: three introduction locations: initial sentence, medial sentences, terminal sentence; three paragraph locations (all paragraphs in the body of the essays, not introductions or conclusions): initial sentence, medial sentences, terminal sentence; and, three conclusion locations: initial sentence, medial sentences and terminal sentence. The initial grammatical elements and their metafunction(s) for each sentence were categorised. Percentages in each category for each location were calculated so that individual locations could be compared for grammatical and metafunctional characteristics. Grouped locations were also considered where this seemed felicitous; for instance, introductions were compared to conclusions or medial sentences compared to boundary sentences (initial and terminal). Comparisons were also made between the timed and untimed samples. The results showed that some grammatical structures could be associated with particular grouped locations and metafunctional characteristics were not independent of location. The research was also able to suggest grammatical means to achieve metafunctional effects that align with descriptors for writing given by examination boards. For example, clear, logical organisation of writing is highly valued by examination boards. This is achieved by means of elements that perform the textual linguistic metafunction. A variety of grammatical elements to perform this function and their most prominent locations were identified. It is intended that the findings may be a highly directed way to help teachers address some of the writing challenges faced by their students at secondary level.

[pt] Este trabalho tem por objeto as estruturas gramaticais portuguesas tradicionalmente denominadas voz passiva analítica e voz passiva sintética (ou pronominal). No quadro da abordagem sistêmico-funcional, são analisadas as semelhanças e diferenças semânticas entre elas, tendo por base seu emprego em textos. O exame de ocorrências dessas estruturas em diferentes gêneros de textos jornalísticos - notícias, editoriais e artigos - revela diferenças de distribuição, com a quase inexistência de voz passiva sintética nas notícias. Partindo desse fato como uma evidência da não-equivalência funcional entre as duas estruturas, estuda-se o significado das ocorrências em contexto, visando a identificar a contribuição específica de cada tipo de estrutura para a realização dos significados do texto. O significado de cada estrutura é, assim, analisado em seus componentes textual, ideacional e interpessoal. No domíno textual, a voz passiva analítica, que se caracteriza pela conversão do participante paciente em Sujeito e, portanto, em Tema não-marcado, funciona primordialmente como um recurso para facilitar o posicionamento de informação dada antes de informação nova, na ordem dos constituintes oracionais. A voz passiva sintética, por sua vez, não apresenta essa propriedade de tematizar um participante, já que, na ordem não-marcada, é o Processo que ocupa a primeira posição oracional nessa estrutura. Na maioria das ocorrências de voz passiva sintética, o constituinte que seria o Sujeito da oração correspondente em voz passiva analítica representa informação nova. Sendo assim, as duas estruturas estudadas contribuem de modos diferentes para a organização do fluxo informacional do texto. No domínio ideacional, há, por um lado, uma diferença na distribuição dos tipos de processo entre as estruturas. A voz passiva sintética presta-se melhor à representação de processos mentais que a voz passiva analítica. Por outro lado, porém, é no âmbito ideacional que as duas estruturas apresentam um traço comum de significado, visto que ambas servem à representação de um processo sem a identificação do Agente. Finalmente, no domínio interpessoal, as estruturas se distinguem pelo fato de que a voz passiva sintética apresenta Sujeito indeterminado, ao contrário da voz passiva analítica. O Sujeito indeterminado, caracterizado pela indefinição máxima da categoria de pessoa, possibilita diferentes efeitos de sentido no que se refere ao envolvimento tanto do autor, quanto do leitor. Propõe-se, desse modo, uma caracterização da voz passiva analítica e da voz passiva sintética em termos de traços semânticos, na forma de um sistema de três parâmetros binários, correspondentes às três metafunções sistêmico-funcionais. Essa análise do significado em traços independentes permite compreender melhor a especificidade do potencial semântico de cada estrutura, bem como a funcionalidade de cada uma no discurso. / [en] The object of this work are the Portuguese grammatical structures traditionally known as analytical passive voice and synthetic (or pronominal) passive voice. Considering their use in texts, the semantic similarities and differences between them are analysed within a systemic- functional framework. The study of these structures in different journalistic genres - reports, editorials and articles - reveals distributional differences, as synthetic passive voice nearly does not occur in reports. Taking this fact as evidence of the functional nonequivalence between the two structures, the work studies the meaning of their occurrences in context, in order to identify the specific contribution of each type of structure to the realization of the text meanings. The meaning of each structure is thus analysed in its textual, ideational and interpersonal components. In the textual domain, analytical passive voice, which is characterized by the conversion of the affected participant into Subject and, consequently, into unmarked Theme, functions primarily as a resource for placing given information before new information, in the order of clause constituents. Synthetic passive voice, on the contrary, does not bear this property of turning a participant into Theme, once it is the Process that occupies the clause first position in this structure. In most of the occurrences of synthetic passive voice, the constituent which would be the Subject of the correspondent clause in analytical passive voice represents new information. So, the two structures contribute in different ways to the organization of the informational flow of the text. In the ideational domain, there is, on the one hand, a difference in the distribution of process types between the structures. Synthetic passive voice is more suitable for the representation of mental processes than analytical passive voice. On the other hand, however, it is in the ideational component that the two structures share a semantic feature, as both of them allow representation of a process without identification of the Agent. Finally, in the interpersonal domain, the structures are distinguished by the fact that synthetic passive voice has indeterminate Subject, differently from analytical passive voice. Indeterminate Subject, characterized by a maximum indefiniteness of grammatical person, permits a variety of meaning effects concerning the author`s and the reader`s involvement. A characterization of analytical passive voice and synthetic passive voice is thus proposed in terms of semantic features, in a system of three binary parameters, correspondent to the three systemic- functional metafunctions. This analysis of meaning in independent features allows a better understanding of the specific semantic potential of each structure, as well as of the functionality of each one in discourse.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:46:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mariu Moreira M Lopes.pdf: 860705 bytes, checksum: 0cbb79f067b527e068ce43ee02d43587 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-06-25 / Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo / Besides its instructional or dogmatic aspects, the Bible is considered a sacred book that has determined human behavior and acquired a sentimental value for people who consider it sacred. But most of its readers have access to it only through translation. So, if there is on one hand an untouchable object that cannot be tampered with, on the other hand the translation is seen as a tool that touches this text modality and, because of this, subjects itself to total sacralization or total demoralization. It is in this impasse that this research is established, because according to Simms (1997), the Bible is characterized as a sensitive text, due to the fact that its translation can provoke objection from receptors that hope to see the reproduction of the Original as God has left it. In this perspective, the functionalist theories of language are very important for Bible analysis, because they approach not only linguistic aspects but also pragmatic ones. On this basis, this research observes the sensitivity in Biblical translation, in the light of the three features of the context of situation ( field , tenor and mode ) and the metafunctions of language ( ideational , interpersonal and textual ) proposed by Halliday (1987). For this purpose, a comparative study of linguistic aspects in the Epistle to the Ephesians was done, observing the three Biblical versions most used in current Protestantism: Versão revista e atualizada - 2ª edição, Nova versão internacional e Nova tradução na linguagem de hoje. Besides this, a questionnaire was prepared with questions whose aim is to analyze receptors expectations about Biblical translation. With this research, we aim at verifying linguistic and socio-cultural aspects observed in the analyzed Portuguese versions of the Bible, which are supposed to be present in the mentality of the current receptor, making it possible to discuss the peculiarities seen in the translation of sacred texts, highlighted in this research: the sacred nature, the language of religion and the focus of translation. / Além de seu aspecto instrucional ou dogmático, a Bíblia é considerada um livro sagrado que rege o comportamento humano e desencadeia um valor sentimental por parte daquele que o sacraliza. Todavia, a maioria de seus leitores somente a acessa por meio da tradução. Assim, se, por um lado, tem-se um objeto quase intocável, que não pode ser burlado ou defraudado, por outro, observa-se a tradução como uma ferramenta que toca essa modalidade de texto e, por assim proceder, sujeita-se à total sacralização ou à total desmoralização. É nesse impasse que esta pesquisa se estabelece, pois, segundo Simms (1997), a Bíblia caracteriza-se como um texto sensível, tendo em vista que sua tradução pode provocar objeções da parte dos receptores que esperam a reprodução do Original tal como fora deixado por Deus. Nessa perspectiva, são de especial valia para exame da obra as teorias funcionalistas da linguagem, que levam em consideração não só os aspectos lingüísticos mas também os pragmáticos. Com esse fundamento, o trabalho observa a sensibilidade na tradução bíblica, à luz das características do contexto de situação ( campo , teor e modo ) e das metafunções ( ideacional, interpessoal e textual ), propostas por Halliday (1987). Para isso, fez-se um estudo comparativo de aspectos lingüísticos na Carta de Paulo aos Efésios, em três versões mais usadas no meio protestante na atualidade: Versão revista e atualizada - 2ª edição, Nova versão internacional e Nova tradução na linguagem de hoje. Além disso, também se elaborou um questionário cujas questões visavam a analisar expectativas do receptor referentes à tradução. Objetiva-se, portanto, com este estudo, verificar aspectos lingüísticos e socioculturais que subjazem às versões bíblicas portuguesas estudadas e que se supõem presentes na mentalidade do receptor da atualidade, promovendo, assim, uma discussão sobre as peculiaridades existentes na tradução de textos sagrados, dentre as quais se destacam nesta pesquisa: a natureza sagrada do texto, a linguagem da religião e o enfoque tradutório.

This study examines how adult second language learners in the context of a writing pedagogical intervention give and receive feedback and how they talk about argumentative texts. The study highlights students' work with peer response and the questions that can arise when students need to relate to instructions, model texts, and feedback that can provide inconsistent information about the text's desired design. The design of this study has taken inspiration from genre theory and formative assessment, emphasizing the role of an explicit writing pedagogy. The results show the importance of teacher guided practice and teaching metafunctional linguistic resources in order to improve students´ writing. Furthermore the results indicate the role of function in writing instruction. Second language writers, as well as any student concerned with writing, need to understand how different linguistic choices affect the content and the readers´ perception of the text.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T18:23:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LAEL - Elaine Lopes Fonseca.pdf: 905797 bytes, checksum: c1391c56fde425dc212006c1a3475285 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-10-18 / This study aims at researching a cacique s worldview of himself, of his people and of the white man. Halliday s Systemic Functional Grammar (1984) is used as theoretical background: the ideational and the interpersonal metafunctions were used in order to analyze the cacique s linguistic representations of reality. Indigenous Anthropology (Junqueira 2000) is also part of the theory since it defines culture by observing linguistic processes. A number of works has dealt with the indigenous question, but none of them actually researched the worldview of a cacique Guarani from Aracruz, ES, under the SFG theory. Thus, this project is an attempt to make a real contribution to the Discourse Analysis field. The interviews with the cacique are the corpus. When asked what his view of himself was, he answered that he considerers himself as an active leader who is always ready to fight for the rights of his people. The cacique has a positive view of his people and considers them the real owners of the land. However, he has a negative view of the white man, who is seen as the one who destroys, kills, and is not punished for breaking the law. We hope to have contributed to Language Studies by showing that the choices made by speakers are meaningful and directly related to their worldview. This work intends to provide Applied Linguistics with and original contribution. It also presents and discusses future limitations, possible topics to be discussed in the future and suggestions of sociological applications of the results / Esta pesquisa de mestrado teve como objetivo principal verificar as visões de mundo que o cacique tem de si mesmo, do seu povo e do homem branco. Para tanto, este trabalho encontrou suporte teórico na Gramática Sistêmico Funcional de Halliday (1984) levando em conta metafunção ideacional para analisar a representação lingüística da realidade feita pelo cacique, e a metafunção interpessoal que considera a língua como elemento fundamental para expressar relações sociais, e para estabelecer esses relacionamentos. Além da GSF e da LC, o projeto desenvolvido para este volume fundamentou-se na Antropologia indígena (Junqueira 2000) que parte de uma concepção de cultura a partir da observação da linguagem. Há vários trabalhos que lidam com a questão indígena, entretanto nenhum deles enfocou o problema da construção de visão de mundo de um cacique guarani de Aracruz , ES à luz da GSF, conforme proposto aqui. Desta forma, o projeto buscou fazer uma contribuição original para o estudo do deste discurso. O corpus empregados na pesquisa foi entrevistas em português com o cacique de uma aldeia Guarani de Aracruz, Espírito Santo. Em resposta à primeira pergunta de pesquisa, qual a visão de mundo que o Cacique constrói de si mesmo, viu-se que ele se vê como um líder ativo e que diz lutar pelos direitos do seu povo. Quanto à segunda pergunta, a visão sobre o seu povo, o cacique vê seu povo de forma positiva como sendo os verdadeiros donos da terra. Em relação à terceira pergunta, a visão sobre o homem branco, os resultados sugeriram que o cacique constrói uma visão de mundo negativa, pois o homem branco destrói, mata, burla as leis e ainda assim fica sem punição. A pesquisa pretende ter contribuído para os estudos da linguagem sob o viés da GSF ao mostrar por meio das escolhas lingüísticas de um falante que podemos analisar quais as visões de mundo que ele constrói sobre determinados fatos e pessoas que o cercam. Assim este trabalho pretende trazer uma contribuição original para a Lingüística Aplicada. Apresenta e discute ainda, as limitações bem como possíveis temas de pesquisas para o futuro, além de possíveis sugestões de aplicações sociológicas dos resultados

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T18:24:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Maria Paula Salvador Wadt.pdf: 2197252 bytes, checksum: 20378a85fc80796ddb73bcf90b13b748 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-07-31 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This study is on the interface between Applied Linguistics and Education, more specifically Distance Education, and has as its main goal offering contributions to teacher development, specially to those who wish to work in digital learning environments. To do so, it investigates the experience of four teachers in the context of Teachers Links, an online course developed within the scope of the Edulang research group. The investigation aims at describing the teachers procedures concerning course management, considering the emergent needs. Such description shall allow a better understanding of the dynamic processes and actions that are present in an online teaching environment, and, therefore, enable teachers to take proper and more conscious decisions in this context. The focus of the investigation is the comprehension of the development and production process of the online course entrance pages (Agendas). The Agendas constitute an area of interaction between the teacher and the virtual classroom, and are meant to foster an active response from the students. They are also areas of re-planning which bring to light the dynamics of the teaching learning process. First, this study investigates the functions of the Agenda as well as its structure; then, it analyses the relations the teachers establish between the content in the Agendas and the dynamic processes in the course; and finally, it reveals the effects the Agendas have on teaching and learning. The study draws on the Theory of Complexity (MORIN, 1997/2005, 2005; HOLLAND, 1995), the Ecosystemic Thought (MORAES, 2003a, 2004, 2005; MORAES e TORRE, 2004) and Functional Grammar (HALLIDAY, 1978; HALLIDAY e MATTHIESSEN, 1999/2006, 2004). Concerning the research paradigm, this is a qualitative ethnographic interpretive investigation (MOITA LOPES, 1996; ESTEBAN, 2003; NUNAN, 1992), supported by the emergent paradigm (MORAES, 1997; GARCIA, 2003) / Este estudo situa-se na interface da Linguística Aplicada e da Educação, particularmente da Educação a Distância, e pretende contribuir para a formação de professores com perspectiva de atuação no ambiente digital. Para tanto, investiga a experiência de alguns professores do curso Teachers Links, realizado no âmbito do Grupo de Pesquisa Edulang, a fim de descrever os procedimentos que eles utilizam no gerenciamento, levando em conta as necessidades emergentes. Isso poderá oportunizar a professores em formação uma melhor compreensão dos processos e ações presentes num ambiente on-line e uma tomada de atitudes mais conscientes e adequadas ao ambiente no qual possam vir a atuar. O foco da investigação está na compreensão do processo de desenvolvimento e produção de textos para as páginas de entrada dos cursos (Agendas), que constituem um espaço de interação entre o professor e a sala de aula virtual, a partir das quais se espera uma atitude responsiva ativa do aluno. As páginas de entrada são também um espaço de replanejamento, que trazem a dinâmica do processo de ensino-aprendizagem. Primeiramente são investigadas as funcionalidades da Agenda e sua estruturação; em segundo lugar, são analisadas as relações que o professor estabelece entre o conteúdo das Agendas e a dinâmica processual do curso; e, finalmente, é feito um levantamento do tipo de influência que as Agendas têm sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem. A fundamentação teórica provém da Teoria da Complexidade (MORIN, 1997/2005, 2005; HOLLAND, 1995), do Pensamento Eco-sistêmico (MORAES, 2003a, 2004, 2005; MORAES e TORRE, 2004) e da Gramática Sistêmico-Funcional (HALLIDAY, 1978; HALLIDAY e MATTHIESSEN, 1999/2006, 2004). Trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa etnográfica de base interpretativa (MOITA LOPES, 1996; ESTEBAN, 2003; NUNAN, 1992), orientada pelo paradigma emergente (MORAES, 1997; GARCIA, 2003)

The present study examines power relations, textual genre and attitudes to the matching process in the labor market in the employment office’s opinion articles in the period 2009–2014.      The power relations that emerge in the debate articles between employers, job seekers and private employment constitute the study's main question. The theoretical starting points are taken from Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis (1992, 2001, and 2010), where the discursive practice consists of the employment office’s production of opinion articles during a recession. The social practice consists of the laws and regulations that make its actions to reduce unemployment in the society. The method is derived from Halliday’s (1994, 2002) systemic functional linguistics. The analysis is based on the theory of his three metafunctions, with the analysis performed on interpersonal, ideational and textual levels.      The result shows that the employment office has a clear agenda that it wants to convey to the receivers of the polemical articles. The employment office seeks legitimacy for its work by explaining reasons for the lack of results. The employment officealso makes replicas of critical debate by leading politicians and commentators, where they defend their current practices. The polemical articles also describe how unemployment can be reduced in the community if employers and job seekers follow their instructions. The employment office operates their own agenda to the causes of unemployment that they want to convey through its debate articles. / Föreliggande studie undersöker maktrelationer, textuell genre och attityder till matchningsprocessen på arbetsmarknaden i Arbetsförmedlingens publicerade debattartiklar under perioden 2009–2014. De maktförhållanden som framkommer i debattartiklarna mellan arbetsgivare, arbetssökande och privata arbetsförmedlare utgör studiens huvudsakliga fråga.      Studiens teoretiska utgångspunkter är hämtade från Faircloughs kritiska diskursanalys (1992, 2001, 2010), där den diskursiva praktiken består av Arbetsförmedlingens produktion av debattartiklar under en pågående lågkonjunktur. Den sociala praktiken utgörs av de lagar och författningar som utgör statens åtgärder för att minska arbetslösheten i samhället. Metoden är hämtad från Hallidays (1994, 2002) systemisk-funktionella lingvistik. Analysen bygger på teorins 3 metafunktioner, där analysen görs på interpersonell, ideationell och textuell nivå.      Resultatet visar att Arbetsförmedlingen har en tydlig agenda som de vill förmedla till debattartiklarnas mottagare. De söker legitimitet för sitt arbetssätt genom att förklara orsaker till de bristande resultaten. De gör även repliker på kritiska debattinlägg från ledande politiker och debattörer, där de försvarar sitt nuvarande arbetssätt. Debattartiklarna redogör också för hur arbetslösheten kan minska i samhället om arbetsgivare och arbetssökande följer deras instruktioner. Arbetsförmedlingen driver en egen agenda till orsakerna bakom arbetslösheten som de vill förmedla genom sina debattartiklar.

This study examines speech acts, modalities, and the use of the informal “you” in the instructions for the national tests in Swedish and Swedish as a second language, as well as teachers’ own instructions for written assignments. The study also aims to explore whether the usage of the components show a power relationship between the instructions and the students. The intention is then to use these linguistic components as markers of power and to investigate how the power relationship unfolds between sender and receiver. The interpersonal metafunction in systemic functional grammar is employed as the method for this study, where each sentence in the instructions is broken down, analyzed based on its language acts, modalities, and use of “you.” These are then discussed in relation to systemic functional grammar and previous research. In summary, the results of the study indicate a power relationship between sender and receiver where the receiver, in more cases, ends up in a position of inferiority compared to the sender. The instructions and assertions provided cannot be counted or opposed by the student without risking their performance on the examination. The results also indicate that the questions available to the students were sometimes leading, where the sender already had an idea of the answer they were looking for. Despite sometimes being leading, the questions can serve as guidance for students' thought process, thus functioning as a support for their writing, which also applies to offers and aids.