L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est la synthèse et l'étude des propriétés en solution de nouveaux copolymères amphiphiles di- et triblocks à gradient de styrène et d'acide acrylique qui sont capables d'association réversible en milieu aqueux. Nous avons étudié la cinétique et le mécanisme de la polymérisation radicalaire contrôlée par l’intermédiaire d’un nitroxyde (NMP), afin de déterminer les caractéristiques quantitatives des réactions de terminaison réversible lors de ce processus. Puis la NMP a été utilisée pour la synthèse de deux architectures différentes de copolymère à gradient: copolymères di- et triblocs. L'auto-assemblage des copolymères à gradient dans l'eau a été étudiée par DLS, SANS et TEM. Les changements réversibles du nombre d'agrégation au cours des cycles de pH ont été observés. De plus, nous avons étudié l'effet du pH et de la force ionique sur les propriétés rhéologiques en solution de copolymères triblocs à gradient. Nous nous sommes également intéressés à synthétiser des brosses de polymère sur surface d'or et étudié leur propriétés pH et électro-sensibles en milieu aqueux. / The main goal of our work was the synthesis and the study of solution properties of novel amphiphilic di- and triblock-gradient copolymers based on styrene and acrylic acid which are capable of reversible association in aqueous solution. We studied the kinetics and the mechanism of nitroxide-mediated radical polymerization (NMP) in order to determine the quantitative characteristics of the reversible termination reaction in this process. Then NMP was employed to the synthesis of two different block-gradient copolymer architectures: di- and triblock-gradient copolymers. The self-assembly of the block-gradient copolymers in water was studied by DLS, SANS and TEM. The reversible changes of aggregation numbers in cycles of pH were observed. We also investigated the effect of pH and ionic strength on rheological properties of triblock-gradient copolymer solution. Then, we synthesized polymer brushes on the gold-coated surface and studied their pH- and electro-responsive properties in aqueous media.

Le procédé adopté par COMURHEX pour le traitement des effluents très chargés en fluor est basé sur l’addition d’un composé alcalin Ca(OH)2 (portlandite) pour faire précipiter de la fluorine (CaF2). Mis en œuvre par le passé dans un décanteur le développement d’un nouveau procédé en lit fluidisé a été envisagé pour augmenter l’efficacité du traitement des effluents. Des essais concluants ont été réalisés sur une installation pilote qui ont démontré l’efficacité de la précipitation en lit fluidisé à assurer une réduction satisfaisante de la concentration du fluor. Cependant, les phénomènes mis en jeu dans le réacteur sont mal connus.Notre objectif principal est la maîtrise de la précipitation de la fluorine dans le réacteur à lit fluidisé ainsi qu’une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes mis en jeu. Pour ce faire, il a été nécessaire de reprendre l’étude thermodynamique du système KOH-portlandite-calcite-fluorine, de manière à étendre les données existantes aux fortes concentrations de KOH en solution. Un modèle thermodynamique capable de prédire la solubilité des solides en présence de variations de la concentration de la potasse et de la température du système a été établi.La deuxième partie du travail a été focalisée sur la compréhension des mécanismes mis en jeu pendant la formation de la fluorine. Les expériences réalisées au laboratoire ont conduit à l’obtention d’une fluorine issue d’une conversion de la portlandite. Ce mécanisme a été modélisé en considérant que le remplacement de la portlandite par la fluorine s’explique par un modèle à cœur rétrécissant contrôlé par la limitation diffusionnelle du fluorure dans la couche de fluorine formée. La dernière partie expérimentale de ce travail a été réalisée sur le pilote à lit fluidisé. Les expériences effectuées n’ont pas donné de résultats satisfaisants. Il n’a pas été possible de faire faire fonctionner le pilote de façon cohérente avec les objectifs de son dimensionnement. En particulier, compte-tenu de la très petite taille des particules, les débits de fonctionnement conduisent à l’envolement de celles-ci, mais pas à l’établissement de l’état fluidisé. / The method used by COMURHEX for the treatment of fluorine-rich effluents relies on the addition of solid Ca(OH)2 (portlandite) to precipitate fluorite (CaF2) in strongly alkaline solutions. This method is effective in a settler, and the development of a new fluidized bed process has been proposed to increase its efficiency. Successful assays were conducted on a pilot scale and they demonstrated that precipitation in a fluidized bed reactor actually ensures a satisfactory defluorination. However, the phenomena involved remained poorly known, and the main goal of the present work was to elucidate the mechanisms, their kinetics, and to control the crystallization.Our first contribution is a thermodynamic reappraisal of the KOH–portlandite–calcite system that extends existing solubility data to higher KOH concentrations in solution and incorporates new solubility data for fluorite. The outcome is an aqueous speciation model (Pitzer type) accounting for the solids solubility as a function of the KOH concentration and the temperature, and allowing portlandite undersaturation and fluorine supersaturation to be evaluated in process solutions.Our second contribution focuses on the kinetics and the mechanisms involved during the formation of fluorite, using various mixing designs in batch reactors. Reaction rates are fast, except in experiments involving dilute reactants. Microprobe and granulometric data both indicate that much of the fluorine results from the conversion of the portlandite grains. A shrinking core model controlled by diffusive transfer of fluoride in the porous fluorite corona successfully fits the kinetics of fluorine uptake and the particle grain size.The last part of the experimental work was carried out on a small fluidized bed pilot. These experiments were poorly conclusive. The very small particle size and the large flow rates lead to particle blow off, but not to fluidization. As a consequence, the capacity of the fluidized bed to promote an increase of the particle grain size remains largely unknown.

O cloridrato de raloxifeno é um fármaco utilizado para o tratamento e prevenção da osteoporose em mulheres na pós-menopausa e foi aprovado pelo FDA para prevenção de câncer de mama invasivo. Pertence à classe de moduladores seletivos de receptor estrogênico. Foi desenvolvido pela Ely Lilly Company e é comercializado como Evista® na forma de comprimidos na dosagem de 60mg. Devido à importância do fármaco e interesse do Instituto Nacional de Ciências e Tecnologia – Inovações Farmacêuticas no desenvolvimento métodos de síntese e de controle de qualidade, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de métodos analíticos para assegurar a qualidade tanto da matéria-prima quanto do produto acabado. A matéria-prima foi analisada quanto às suas características físico-químicas através da determinação da solubilidade, do ponto de fusão e da calorimetria exploratória diferencial. A caracterização e identificação da matéria-prima foram realizadas identificando grupos característicos como o cloreto e grupo fenol e também por espectrofotometria na região do infravermelho e do ultravioleta e por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. A forma farmacêutica comprimidos também foi caracterizada e identificada através dos mesmos métodos que a matéria-prima e adicionalmente através de cromatografia em camada delgada e eletroforese capilar. Os métodos desenvolvidos e validados para quantificação da matéria-prima foram volumetria em meio não-aquoso e cromatografia líquida. Para os comprimidos, foram desenvolvidos métodos por espectrofotometria na região do ultravioleta, cromatografia líquida e eletroforese capilar. Os resultados de todos os métodos foram analisados estatisticamente para verificar equivalência nas determinações. / Raloxifene hydrochloride is used for the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women. It was approved by FDA for the prevention of invasive breast cancer. It was developed by Ely Lilly Company and marketed as Evista® in form of tablets of 60mg. Due to the importance of this substance and the interest of INCT-IF in its synthesis and quality control, the present work developed analytical methods to assure the quality of the raw substance and the pharmaceutical form. Qualitative and quantitative methods were developed for the analysis of raloxifene hydrochloride as raw substance and tablets. The raw substance was characterized by its physical and chemical characteristics by solubility, melting point and differencial scaning calorimetry. It was also identified by the analysis of characteristic groups such as chloride and phenol, and by infrared and ultraviolet spectrophotometry; also by high performance liquid chromatography. The tablets were also characterized and identified by the same methods as for the raw substance, but in addition by thin layer chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. The developed and validated methods for the assay of the raw substance were: non-aqueous titration and liquid chromatography. For the tablets, the assays were: ultraviolet spectrophotometry, liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. The results of all methods were analyzed statistically to verify the equivalence of the determinations.

Atmospheric aerosols affect climate change by altering the energy balance of the atmosphere, and public health due to their variable chemical composition, size, and shape. While the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) from gas phase precursors is relatively well understood, it does not account for the abundance of SOA observed during field measurements. Recently it has become apparent that in-aerosol aqueous chemical reactions likely provide some of the missing sources of SOA production, and many studies of aqueous phase processes are underway. This work explores the fates of the simplest 2-oxocarboxylic acids, glyoxylic acid (GA) and pyruvic acid (PA), under simulated solar irradiation in the aqueous phase. Field measurements have revealed that mono-, di-, and oxocarboxylic acids are abundant species present in atmospheric waters. Of particular interest are 2-oxocarboxylic acids because their conjugated carbonyl moieties result in significant UV-visible absorption above 300 nm, allowing absorption of sunlight in the lower troposphere, thereby initiating radical photochemistry and leading to formation of SOA. In Chapter 2 of this work, GA is demonstrated to primarily undergo α-cleavage, producing CO, CO2, formic acid, and the key SOA precursor glyoxal. Trace amounts of oxalic acid and tartaric acid are also quantified. Additionally, the dark thermal aging of glyoxylic acid photoproducts, studied by UV-visible and fluorescence spectroscopies, reveals that the optical properties of the solutions are altered radically by the glyoxal produced. The optical properties display periodicity during photolytic-dark cycles, reflecting behavior expected for aerosols during nighttime and daytime cycles. In contrast, Chapter 3 shows that PA photoreacts via a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) mechanism that produces CO2 and organic acids of increased complexity with 6 to 8 carbons. A combination of analytical techniques including 1H and 13C NMR; 13C gCOSY NMR; mass spectrometry; chromatography; and isotope substitutions allows the organic products to be identified as: 2,3-dimethyltartaric acid; 2-hydroxy-2-((3-oxobutan-2-yl)oxy)propanoic acid; and the quasi-intermediate 2-(1-carboxy-1-hydroxyethoxy)-2-methyl-3-oxobutanoic acid. In Chapter 4, PA irradiation is also shown to consume dissolved oxygen so fast that solutions become depleted within a few minutes depending on reaction conditions. This fast process directly produces the atmospheric oxidant singlet oxygen, which enhances the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. Additionally, PA photochemistry only proceeds under very acidic conditions (pH ≤ 3.5), like those in most atmospheric aerosols. Finally, we require a thorough understanding of the behavior of 2-oxocarboxylic acids at the air-water interface of aerosols because much of the GA and PA present in the atmosphere is produced in the gas phase and needs to partition into the aqueous phase to undergo photoreaction. Therefore, Chapter 5 uses surface sensitive online electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (OESI-MS) to demonstrate that carboxylic acids delivered from the gas phase onto the surface of aqueous microdroplets display enhanced acidities relative to bulk water solutions. This work demonstrates that aqueous photolysis is a very competitive atmospheric fate for both GA and PA. It also shows that these photoreactions are capable of contributing substantially to SOA formation by building chemical complexity and forming oxidants directly.

Aerosols affect climate change, the energy balance of the atmosphere, and public health due to their variable chemical composition, size, and shape. Aerosols from natural and anthropogenic sources can be primary organic aerosols (POA), which are directly emitted to the atmosphere, or secondary organic aerosols (SOA) that are formed from chemical reactions of gas-phase precursors. At variance with the well investigated formation of SOA from gas phase precursors, the chemistry of aqueous SOAs that contribute to the total SOA budget remains unknown. Field measurements have revealed that carboxylic, dicarboxylic and oxocarboxylic acids are abundant species present in SOAs. This thesis explores the fate of two such acids, pyruvic (PA) and glyoxylic (GA) acids surrogates of the oxocarboxylic acids in the atmosphere, in their cross reaction under solar irradiation and dark thermal aging. Mixtures of complex photoproducts are identified by ion chromatography (IC) with conductivity and electrospray (ESI) mass spectrometry (MS) detection, direct ESI-MS analysis in the negative ion mode, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) analysis including one-dimensional (1H- and 13C-NMR) and two-dimensional techniques such as gradient correlation spectroscopy (gCOSY) and heteronuclear single quantum correlation (HSQC). A reaction mechanism for the cross reaction is provided based on all experimental observations.

Le développement d'un nouveau système photo-initiateur 1 photoinitiateur capable d'absorber fortement la lumière dans la région de la lumière visible et de travailler sous irradiation LED a fait des progrès gratifiants. Ici, notamment l'azurant fluorescent en tant que classe de dérivés fluorophores, a été confirmé comme un Pl efficace pour la photopolymérisation radicalaire (FRP), l'un des principaux avantages est qu'ils peuvent travailler efficacement sous l'air, même à faible intensité lumineuse. Lorsqu'ils sont incorporés dans des systèmes photoinitiateurs multicomposants (en présence de sel d'iodonium (et éventuellement N-vinylcarbazole ou amine)), les dérivés du naphtalène-benzoxazole, des triazinylstilbènes sulfonés, du stilbène-biphényl sulfoné et du coumarinme inhibent d'excellentes capacités photoamorcantes pour la FRP des acrylates sous air. De plus, ils sont particulièrement efficaces pour la formation d'un réseau de polymères interpénétrés à travers une photopolymérisation cationique 1 radicale concomitante d'un mélange époxydes 1 acrylates.De plus, la substitution d'une certaine teneur en monomère acrylate avec de l'eau augmente positivement la conversion finale des fonctions acrylate polymérisables, spécialement formulée avec les systèmes initiateurs à base d'azurants hydrophiles. En outre, une formulation aqueuse d'acrylate contenant des systèmes d'amorçage à base d'azurants a permis la synthèse d'hydrogels assistée par LED. Cette méthode de synthèse consomme moins d'énergie et les hydrogels produits ont généralement une teneur élevée en eau. Et, l'étude des photopolymérisations qui se déroulent dans les mélanges acrylate 1 eau élargit les perspectives pour le polymère vert et la chimie organique. / The development of a new photoinitiator/photoinitiatng system being capable of strongly absorbing light in the visible-light region and working under LED irradiation has made gratifying advance. Herein, notably the fluorescent brightener as one class of fluorophore derivetives, has been confirmed as an efficient Pl for free radical photopolymerization (FRP), one of the major advantages is thalthey could efficiently work under air even exposure to a low LED light intensity. When incorporated into multicomponent photoinitiating systems (in the presence of iodonium salt (and optionally N-vinyl carbazole or amine)), the derivatives of naphthalene­ benzoxazole, sulfonated triazinylstilbenes, sulfonated stilbene-biphenyl and coumarinmexhibit quite excellent photoinitiating abilities for FRP of acrylates under air. Moreover, they are particularly efficient for the formation of interpenetrated polymer network through a concomitant cationic/radical photopolymerization of epoxides/acrylates blend.Additionally, substitution of a certain content of acrylate monomer with water is found to positively increase the final conversion of polymerizable acrylate functions, especially formulated with the hydrophilic brighteners-based initiating systems. Besides, an aqueous acrylate formulation containing brighteners-based initiating systems enabled the LED-assisted synthesis of hydrogels. This synthetic method is less energy-intensive and the hydrogels produced are typically of high water content. And, the investigation of photopolymerizations thal proceed in acrvlate/water blends broadens the perspectives for qreen polvmer and organic chemistry.

L’exposition cutanée aux produits chimiques par des rejets criminels ou accidentels impose une méthode de décontamination rapide et efficace pour sauver des vies et limiter le transfert de la contamination. L’exploration bibliographique recense des produits toxiques (armes chimiques, toxiques industriels) ainsi que les décontaminants naturels ou synthétiques et leurs méthodes d’application dans un contexte d’intervention sur le terrain. Le sujet vise à la qualification d’un outil de décontamination, la terre de foulon dans des formulations simples, faciles à mettre en œuvre en urgence par les services de Sécurité civile (sapeurs-pompiers). Le travail réalisé comporte :La caractérisation chimique et structurale de la poudre de terre de foulon NBC-Sys qui a permis d’identifier le composant principal : la palygorskite, La formulation et la caractérisation galénique et physico-chimique (granulométrie, zêta potentiel) en milieu concentré et milieu dilué des systèmes dispersés,La capacité d’adsorption de la terre de foulon et ses formulations vis-à-vis d’un modèle contaminant, le 4-cyanophenol, d’intérêt pour l’évaluation de la décontamination, in vitro en milieu aqueux, ex vivo sur explant cutané. L’adsorption du 4-CP en solution aqueuse (10, 100 et 500 mg/L-1) est rapide (5-15min) au contact de la terre de foulon, varie avec le ratio terre de foulon/4-CP, atteint un plateau (saturation) entre 45 et 60 min, l’équilibre entre 60 min et 120 min. Les suspensions de terre de foulon sont plus efficaces (90%) pour la décontamination que les poudres (70%) et l’eau (60%) dans des conditions expérimentales identiques. L’évaluation de la terre de foulon et ses formulations sur les paramètres physiologiques de la peau (perte insensible en eau et conductance) in vivo chez l’homme ne montre pas d’altération de la fonction barrière cutanée.L’ensemble est un premier pas vers une référence (qui n’existe pas actuellement), incluant une méthodologie de décontamination chimique / Cutaneous exposure to contaminants chemicals after criminal or accidental release enforces a rapid and efficient decontamination to save lives and avoid cross contamination. A bibilographic exploration of this work identifies toxic chemical (chemical warfare agents, toxic industrial chemicals), raw and synthetic decontaminants and their application methods applied in emergency. The aim of this study focuses on a decontamination tool qualification, the fuller’s earth (FE), simple formulated, easy to apply in emergency by civil Security services (fire fighter brigades). The work performed includes :The chemical and structural characterization of the powder of fuller’earth NBC-Sys , that lead to identify the palygorskite as main component, The formulation of dispersed systems and their physico chemical characterization (granulometry, zêta potentiel) in concentrated or diluted medium. The adsorption capacity of the FE and formulations for a contaminant model, the 4-cyanophenol, to assess decontamination in vitro, in aqueous medium, ex vivo on cutaneous explant.4-CP adsorption in aqueous solutions (10, 100 et 500 mg/L-1) is rapid (5-15min), when contact with FE, vary with the ratio FE/ 4-CP, to reach a plateau phase (saturation) between 45 and 60 minutes, and an steady state between 60 and 120 min. FE suspensions are more efficient (90%) than powder (70%) and water (60%) in the same experimental conditions. L’évaluation de la terre de foulon et ses formulations sur les paramètres physiologiques de la peau (perte insensible en eau et conductance) in vivo chez l’homme ne montre pas d’altération de la fonction barrière cutanée. FE and its suspensions were assessed on physiological skin parameters (Transepidermal water loss and conductance) in vivo in a human study and exhibit no alteration on the skin barrier function. Results obtained is a first step towards a reference (that actually don’t exist) including a chemical decontamination method

Les supercondensateurs sont des dispositifs de stockage électrochimique de l’énergie très intéressants lorsque des pics de puissance sont mis en jeu. Toutefois, leur densité d’énergie volumique est la principale limite pour leur intégration, en particulier, dans des systèmes de transport terrestre. L’utilisation de matériaux d’électrode ayant un comportement pseudocapacitif et des masses volumiques élevées permettrait d’améliorer la densité d’énergie volumique des supercondensateurs. Avec cet objectif, des dispositifs à base des matériaux de la famille Ba0,5Sr0,5CoxFe1-xO3-δ, nommés BSCFs, ont été développés dans le cadre de cette thèse. Plusieurs compositions de cette famille d’oxydes ont été préparées par un procédé glycine-nitrate et ont été testés comme matériau actif d’électrode positive en milieu aqueux neutre. La capacité volumique de ces matériaux s’avère être beaucoup plus élevée que celle des carbones activés utilisés dans les supercondensateurs commerciaux. Elle a montré également dépendre de la composition en cobalt et en fer, du régime de charge, de la nature de l’électrolyte… Le mécanisme de stockage de charges dans ces matériaux a été exploré grâce à des techniques in situ (absorption des rayons X) et operando (diffraction des rayons X) effectuées aux synchrotrons SOLEIL (France) et SPring-8 (Japon). Enfin, des dispositifs associant une électrode positive à base de BSCF et du carbone activé ou FeWO4 en tant qu’électrode négative ont démontré l’intérêt d’intégrer de tels matériaux pour améliorer la densité d’énergie volumique des supercondensateurs. / Supercapacitors are attractive electrochemical energy storage devices for high power applications. However, volumetric energy density is the main limitation for their integration in such applications as terrestrial transport systems. The use of high density pseudocapacitive oxides as electrode material could lead to a volumetric energy density improvement. With this aim, materials from Ba0,5Sr0,5CoxFe1-xO3-δ family, so called BSCFs, have been studied. Several compositions have been prepared and evaluated as positive electrode materials in aqueous neutral electrolyte. Volumetric capacitances have shown to be greater than those of activated carbons, already used in marketed supercapacitors. They have also shown to depend on cobalt and iron ratio, charge rate, electrolyte composition... The study of the charge storage mechanism in these materials has been investigated thanks to in situ (X-Ray absroption spectroscopy) and operando (X-Ray diffraction) technics performed at SOLEIL (France) and SPring-8 (Japan) synchrotron facilities. Finally, devices coupling BSCF based positive electrode material with activated carbon or FeWO4 based negative electrode materials have demonstrated the added value of such materials to improve the volumetric energy density of supercapacitors.

Methods were developed for the determination of methylmercury in natural waters and sediments based on steam distillation and aqueous phase ethylation followed by gas chromatography-atomic fluorescence spectrometry. The methods were shown to be free from measurable artefactual methylation of inorganic mercury and offered improved sample throughput over existing methods. Improvements were made to existing methods for the determination of total mercury in biota, sediments and natural waters and dissolved mercury species in natural waters. These methods were applied to the study of mercury cycling in two remote field sites. The cycling of mercury species was studied in Lake Murray in Western Province, Papua New Guinea, which has been historically noted as a region of high mercury concentrations in fish. Concentrations of methylmercury and total mercury in the water column were found to be variable and consistent with non-contaminated lake systems. Concentrations of methylmercury and total mercury in the sediments were also found to be low, except for in the south of the lake, which was influenced by an intermittent supply of water and sediments with elevated mercury concentrations from the Strickland River. Methylmercury concentrations in the sediments were generally higher in the backwater areas due to littoral processes. The low concentrations of methylmercury in the sediments and waters were inconsistent with other systems previously studied in the northern hemisphere, showing a link between high mercury concentrations in fish and high concentrations of methylmercury in waters or sediments. Therefore, the biota of Lake Murray were studied in order to account for the differences between this and other systems. A study was conducted of the stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen in biota from Lake Murray to elucidate key food-web interactions. This study revealed that the dominant carbon source for fish in the lake is plankton, although algae and macrophytes may also be involved in the food-web. The methylmercury bioaccumulation factors between trophic levels were similar to those measured in temperate systems of the northern hemisphere. The high concentrations of methylmercury, observed in piscivorous fish, were shown to be a consequence of the complex food-web and the number of trophic levels in the food-chains. The cycling of mercury species was studied in Lake Gordon and Lake Pedder in southwest Tasmania, which has recently been identified as being in a region of high mercury concentrations in trout and eels. The concentrations of total mercury were found to be reasonably uniform in the waters of both lakes, spatially and temporally. The concentrations of methylmercury in the waters were seasonally variable, and were consistently lower in Lake Pedder than in Lake Gordon. Dilution of methylmercury concentrations by precipitation direct to the lake surface, probably accounts for the most of the difference in methylmercury concentrations between the lakes. Owing to the long residence time of water in Lake Gordon, this reservoir mixes inputs of water with varying methylmercury concentrations. Concentrations of total mercury and methylmercury in submerged soils were low and depth profiles of mercury species in the water column did not show evidence of a gradient of mercury concentrations due to releases from the sediments. The concentrations of methylmercury observed in the water column are consistent with the concentrations observed in the fish. A budget of the mercury inputs and outputs to Lake Gordon showed that in-lake processes and sources in the catchment areas both contributed significantly to the concentrations of methylmercury in the lake. The methylation of mercury in Lake Gordon appeared to mainly occur in the surface waters (< 10 m) and was not consistent with processes leading to the methylation of mercury at the oxic/anoxic boundary observed in seepage lakes in Wisconsin. The concentrations of total mercury and methylmercury in bogs in the catchment areas of Lakes Gordon and Pedder, were high and governed by the concentration of organic matter in the sediments. The processes involved in the supply of mercury species from the Lake Gordon and Lake Pedder catchments appear to be similar to those in drainage lakes in the temperate and boreal regions of the northern hemisphere. The formation of the Lake Gordon and Lake Pedder reservoirs appears to have had little impact on the mean annual concentrations of methylmercury released to the downstream environment.

<p>Water is one of the most common compounds on earth and is essential for all biological activities. Water has, however, been a mystery for many years due to the large number of unusual chemical and physical properties, e.g. decreased volume during melting and maximum density at 4 °C. The origin of the anomalies behavior is the nature of the hydrogen bond. This thesis will presented an x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) study to reveal the hydrogen bond structure in liquid water.</p><p>The x-ray absorption process is faster than a femtosecond and thereby reflects the molecular orbital structure in a frozen geometry locally around the probed water molecules. The results indicate that the electronic structure of liquid water is significantly different from that of the solid and gaseous forms. The molecular arrangement in the first coordination shell of liquid water is actually very similar as the two-hydrogen-bonded configurations at the surface of ice. This discovery suggests that most molecules in liquid water have two-hydrogen-bonded configurations with one donor and one acceptor hydrogen bond compared to the four-hydrogen-bonded tetrahedral structure in ice. This result is controversial since the general picture is that the structure of liquid water is very similar to the structure of ice. The results are, however, consistent with x-ray and neutron diffraction data but reveals serious discrepancies with structures based on current molecular dynamics simulations. The two-hydrogen-bond configuration in liquid water is rigid and heating from 25 °C to 90 °C introduce a minor change in the hydrogen-bonded configurations. Furthermore, XAS studies of water in aqueous solutions show that ion hydration does not affect the hydrogen bond configuration of the bulk. Only water molecules in the close vicinity to the ions show changes in the hydrogen bond formation. XAS data obtained with fluorescence yield are sensitive enough to resolved electronic structure of water molecules in the first hydration sphere and to distinguish between different protonated species. Hence, XAS is a useful tool to provide insight into the local electronic structure of a hydrogen-bonded liquid and it is applied for the first time on water revealing unique information of high importance.</p>