Cette thèse vise à identifier les contraintes institutionnelles et réglementaires qui limitent le développement des unités informelles à Djibouti en faisant à la fois une analyse microéconomique et macroéconomique. L’examen des institutions montre que des habitudes (corruption, passe droit) en matière de règlement de l’administration créent des coûts de transaction et obligent les micro-entreprises à se réfugier dans le secteur informel. Un modèle de régression montre que la qualité de la justice (mesurée par l’indicateur de Rule of Law de la Banque mondiale) est une variable déterminante pour expliquer le poids de l’économie non observée et donc celui du secteur informel, dans le PIB officiel. La dynamique des micro-entreprises est appréhendée à partir de 2 enquêtes (2001 et 2005) portant sur le même échantillon. L’analyse de la mobilité à l’aide de matrices de transition révèle l’existence non pas d’un seul seuil infranchissable, mais plutôt de trois (1 actif, 2-5 actifs, 6-9 actifs et 10 actifs et plus) et confirme la thèse du «missing-middle». L’analyse factorielle discriminante indique que la légalité est une variable déterminante pour expliquer le blocage apparent des micro-entreprises au-delà de 6 à 9 actifs. Enfin, l’enquête 2007 sur les activités de transfert d’argents (hawalas) montre leur impact important sur le plan macroéconomique ; elle suggère la prise en compte de la spécificité et de l’utilité de ces institutions comme un dispositif complémentaire aux banques dont l’intégration dans le système financier formel devrait être facilitée. / This research seeks to detect the institutional and regulatory constraints that limit the development of informal units in Djibouti by both the macroeconomic and microeconomic analysis. The review shows that institutional habits (corruption, going right) in regulation created transaction costs and force small businesses to take refuge in the informal sector. A regression model shows that the quality of justice (as measured by this indicator of Rule of Law of the World Bank) is a determining variable in explaining the weight of the non-observed economy and hence the informal sector in GDP official. The dynamics of micro-enterprises is approached from 2 surveys (2001 and 2005) on the same sample. The analysis of mobility through transition matrices reveals the existence of three thresholds (1 employee, 2-5 employees, 6-9 employees and 10 employees and more) and not only one single threshold, albeit it confirms the thesis of «missing-middle». The discriminating factor analysis indicates that the law is a crucial variable that explains the apparent blocking of micro-enterprises beyond 6 to 9 employees. Finally, the 2007 survey on the money transfer activities (hawalas) shows that these institutions have a significant impact on the macroeconomic level and suggests that their usefulness and specificity should be taken into account in order to integrate this banking device within the formal financial system.

The study aimed to assess factors affecting the uptake of community-based Tuberculosis care (CTBC) as experienced by patients in Lobatse in order to make recommendations to enhance the uptake of CBTC in this area. A cross-sectional study was conducted, using structured interviews amongst 101 TB patients in Lobatse who registered for directly observed treatment (DOT) for TB in the GOB’s health facilities from January 2011 to August 2013. The SPSS (version 21) was used to analyse the data. Univariate logistic regression models were used. Participation in CTBC was an outcome. The main predictors for participation in CBTC included, knowledge and attitudes towards CTBC (p=0.0003), perceived barriers and enablers towards this programme (p=0.0279), and patient satisfaction with this programme (p=0.0315). The research findings pertain to TB services in Lobatse, because the study was conducted in government health facilities implementing the Botswana National Tuberculosis Programme (BNTP) CTBC guidelines only in Lobatse / Health Studies / M. A. (Public Health)

O estudo teve como foco a análise do envolvimento de gestores (secretários) municipais e equipes de saúde da atenção básica com as ações de controle da tuberculose (TB) em nove municípios prioritários do Estado de São Paulo, a partir da percepção dos coordenadores do Programa de Controle da TB. Utilizou-se como referencial teórico o modelo proposto pela Organização Mundial de Saúde (2003) baseado na integração dos componentes estruturais (Macro, Meso e Micro) do sistema de saúde para a organização da atenção às condições crônicas, dentre elas a TB. Trata-se de uma pesquisa que utilizou a abordagem qualitativa, cujos dados foram coletados por meio de entrevista semi-estruturada e analisados através da técnica de análise de conteúdo-modalidade temática. A codificação dos depoimentos resultou em duas Unidades Temáticas Centrais: \"O controle da Tuberculose na agenda municipal de saúde: uma prioridade política?\" e \"A incorporação das ações de controle da TB na Atenção Básica à Saúde\". A primeira Unidade Temática apontou o desinteresse pelas políticas e estratégias de controle da TB, a discordância com a prática do Tratamento Supervisionado, a presença de outras prioridades de saúde com caráter emergencial e o enfoque na implantação e expansão de equipes de saúde da família pela gestão municipal como elementos que dificultam a valorização da TB na agenda de saúde e a disponibilização de recursos essenciais para seu controle. Na segunda Unidade Temática identificou-se que a falta de recursos humanos, a inadequada qualificação dos profissionais e a visão centralizada e fragmentada da organização das ações de controle da doença no sistema de saúde representam as principais barreiras para a incorporação da TB no âmbito da atenção básica. Considera-se que a construção de um sistema municipal de saúde mais responsável e com ampla participação da atenção básica no efetivo controle da TB exige um padrão de gestão comprometido com a doença e com as estratégias difundidas para seu controle como o DOTS; a organização de uma rede de serviços integrada, resolutiva e humanizada e a elaboração/implementação de uma política de recursos humanos capaz de garantir formação e capacitação contínua das equipes de saúde. / The aim of this study was to explore the involvement of municipal health managers (Health Secretaries) and basic health attention teams with actions for tuberculosis (TB) control in nine priority cities in São Paulo, from the viewpoint of the TB Control Program coordinators. Theoretical references were based on the model proposed by the World Health Organization (2003), which consists of the integration of health system structural elements (Macro, Meso, and Micro) for the organization of services targeting chronic conditions, among which is TB. This study involves the use of a qualitative approach and data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed by means of theme unit content analysis techniques. Two major theme units stood out after testimonials were encoded: \"Tuberculosis control in the municipal health agenda: Is it a priority?\" and \"The incorporation of TB control actions into basic Health services\". The first theme unit identified the following, as elements that hinder the inclusion of TB in the health agenda and allocation of essential financial resources for its control: 1) a lack of interest in strategies and policies for TB control; 2) disagreement on Supervised Treatment practice; 3) other existing health priorities, and 4) the Health Secretary\'s focus on implementing and expanding the Family Health Program actions and teams. The second theme unit showed that the lack of human resources, inadequate professional capacity building, and a centralized and fragmented understanding about organizing the disease control actions within the health system represent barriers that need to be overcome in order to include TB into the Basic Health Services. The conclusion is that setting up a more responsible municipal health system and making basic health attention providers more participatory in an effective control of TB requires a kind of management that is concerned with the disease and the strategies proposed for its control, such as DOTS. Furthermore, it is mandatory to organize an integrated, problem-solving, and human service network as well as design and implement a human resources policy that will ensure continuing education and capacity building targeting health teams.

Drug trade is a part of non-observed economy in the system of national accounts. Estimations of drug trade were made from demand side based on estimation of drug consumption. This needs estimations of drug users, which was possible to estimate from drug use prevalence in last year. Several surveys done in society were the data source. Other information from the surveys was information about frequency of drug use. Several research studies gave information about consumed drug quantity by one opportunity. Police and customs have a common database about drug seizures. The database is source for information about import and export of drugs, drug purities by production or import and by consumption or export. Police reports drug prices also. The physical indicators of the drug trade are recalculated by wholesale and retail prices into financial indicators, which are possible to record into system of national accounts.

Avec l'évolution de la technologie, l'homme a procédé à la conception de systèmes de plus en plus complexes mais aussi de plus en plus sensibles aux défauts qui peuvent les affecter. Une procédure de diagnostic contribuant au bon déroulement du processus est ainsi nécessaire. Dans ce contexte, le but de cette thèse est le diagnostic des systèmes à événements discrets modélisés par des Réseaux de Petri Étiquetés (RdPE) partiellement observables. Sous l'hypothèse que chaque défaut est modélisé par le tir d'une transition non observable, deux approches de diagnostic à base d'estimation d'état sont développées. Une première approche composée de deux étapes consiste à estimer l'ensemble des marquages de base sur un horizon élémentaire glissant. La première étape consiste à déterminer un ensemble de vecteurs candidats à partir d'une approche algébrique. La deuxième étape consiste à éliminer les solutions candidates calculées qui ne sont pas associées à une trajectoire possible du RdPE. Comme l'ensemble des marquages de base pourra aussi être important, une deuxième approche de diagnostic évitera cet écueil en n'estimant pas les marquages. Une technique de relaxation des problèmes de Programmation Linéaire en Nombres Entiers (PLNE) sur un horizon fuyant est utilisée afin d'avoir un diagnostic en temps polynomial. / With the evolution of technology, humans have made available systems increasingly complex but also increasingly sensitive to faults that may affect it. A diagnostic procedure which contributes to the smooth running of the process is thus necessary. In this context, the aim of this thesis is the diagnosis of discrete event systems modeled by partially observed Labeled Petri Nets (LPNs). Under the assumption that each defect is modeled by the firing of an unobservable transition, two diagnostic approaches based on state estimation are developed. A first approach is to estimate the set of basis markings on a sliding elementary horizon. This approach is carried out in two steps. The first step is to determine a set of candidate vectors from an algebraic approach. The second step is to eliminate the calculated candidate solutions that are not associated with a possible trajectory of the LPN. As the set of basis markings can also be huge, a second diagnostic approach will avoid this pitfall by not estimating the markings. A relaxation technique of Integer Linear Programming (ILP) problems on a receding horizon is used to have a diagnosis in polynomial time.

QBEST, a novel statistical method, can be applied to the problem of estimating the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL or QNOAEL) of a New Molecular Entity (NME) in order to anticipate a safe starting dose for beginning clinical trials. The NOAEL from QBEST (called the QNOAEL) can be calculated using multiple disparate studies in the literature and/or from the lab. The QNOAEL is similar in some ways to the Benchmark Dose Method (BMD) used widely in toxicological research, but is superior to the BMD in some ways. The QNOAEL simulation generates an intuitive curve that is comparable to the dose-response curve. The NOAEL of ellagic acid (EA) is calculated for clinical trials as a component therapeutic agent (in BSN476) for treating Chikungunya infections. Results are used in a simulation based on nonparametric cluster analysis methods to calculate confidence levels on the difference between the Effect and the No Effect studies. In order to evaluate the statistical power of the algorithm, simulated data clusters with known parameters are fed into the algorithm in a separate study, testing the algorithm’s accuracy and precision “Around the Compass Rose” at known coordinates along the circumference of a multidimensional data cluster. The specific aims of the proposed study are to evaluate the accuracy and precision of the QBEST Simulation and QNOAEL compared to the Benchmark Dose Method, and to calculate the QNOAEL of EA for BSN476 Drug Development.

Two different sets of problems are addressed in this thesis. The first one is on partially observed semi-Markov Games (POSMG) and the second one is on semi-Markov modulated financial market model. In this thesis we study a partially observable semi-Markov game in the infinite time horizon. The study of a partially observable game (POG) involves three major steps: (i) construct an equivalent completely observable game (COG), (ii) establish the equivalence between POG and COG by showing that if COG admits an equilibrium, POG does so, (iii) study the equilibrium of COG and find the corresponding equilibrium of original partially observable problem. In case of infinite time horizon game problem there are two different payoff criteria. These are discounted payoff criterion and average payoff criterion. At first a partially observable semi-Markov decision process on general state space with discounted cost criterion is studied. An optimal policy is shown to exist by considering a Shapley’s equation for the corresponding completely observable model. Next the discounted payoff problem is studied for two-person zero-sum case. A saddle point equilibrium is shown to exist for this case. Then the variable sum game is investigated. For this case the Nash equilibrium strategy is obtained in Markov class under suitable assumption. Next the POSMG problem on countable state space is addressed for average payoff criterion. It is well known that under this criterion the game problem do not have a solution in general. To ensure a solution one needs some kind of ergodicity of the transition kernel. We find an appropriate ergodicity of partially observed model which in turn induces a geometric ergodicity to the equivalent model. Using this we establish a solution of the corresponding average payoff optimality equation (APOE). Thus the value and a saddle point equilibrium is obtained for the original partially observable model. A value iteration scheme is also developed to find out the average value of the game. Next we study the financial market model whose key parameters are modulated by semi-Markov processes. Two different problems are addressed under this market assumption. In the first one we show that this market is incomplete. In such an incomplete market we find the locally risk minimizing prices of exotic options in the Follmer Schweizer framework. In this model the stock prices are no more Markov. Generally stock price process is modeled as Markov process because otherwise one may not get a pde representation of price of a contingent claim. To overcome this difficulty we find an appropriate Markov process which includes the stock price as a component and then find its infinitesimal generator. Using Feynman-Kac formula we obtain a system of non-local partial differential equations satisfied by the option price functions in the mildsense. .Next this system is shown to have a classical solution for given initial or boundary conditions. Then this solution is used to have a F¨ollmer Schweizer decomposition of option price. Thus we obtain the locally risk minimizing prices of different options. Furthermore we obtain an integral equation satisfied by the unique solution of this system. This enable us to compute the price of a contingent claim and find the risk minimizing hedging strategy numerically. Further we develop an efficient and stable numerical method to compute the prices. Beside this work on derivative pricing, the portfolio optimization problem in semi-Markov modulated market is also studied in the thesis. We find the optimal portfolio selections by optimizing expected utility of terminal wealth. We also obtain the optimal portfolio selections under risk sensitive criterion for both finite and infinite time horizon.

Η φυματίωση είναι λοιμώδης νόσος μεταδιδόμενη αερογενώς και προκαλούμενη από βακτήρια τα οποία ανήκουν στην ομάδα των Μυκοβακτηριδίων και ιδιαίτερα στο σύμπλοκο της φυματιώσεως (Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex). Τα τελευταία χρόνια αποτελεί ένα επιδεινούμενο πρόβλημα δημόσιας υγείας ανά την υφήλιο, με επίπτωση παγκοσμίως για το 2007 139/100.000 πληθυσμό, ενώ για την Ευρώπη 54/100.000 και για την Ελλάδα 5,9/100.000 πληθυσμό. Η σωστή καταγραφή των κρουσμάτων, συμβάλλει στην πραγματική αποτύπωση του μεγέθους του προβλήματος και των χαρακτηριστικών της νόσου και θα οδηγήσει σε αποτελεσματικές θεραπευτικές παρεμβάσεις, ώστε να επιτευχθούν και στη χώρα μας οι στόχοι που έχει θέσει η ΠΟΥ, δηλαδή ο περιορισμός κατά το ήμισυ της νοσηρότητας και των θανάτων από φυματίωση έως το 1015, συγκριτικά με το 1990 και η εκρίζωση της νόσου έως το 2050. Στην παρούσα μελέτη έγιναν αρχικά δύο επιδημιολογικές έρευνες που αφορούσαν: α) την επιδημιολογία της φυματίωσης στη Δυτική Ελλάδα και την αξιολόγηση της πληρότητας των υποχρεωτικών δηλώσεων (2000-2003) καθώς και β) την εκτίμηση του δείκτη διαμόλυνσης σε μαθητικό πληθυσμό του Νομού Ηλείας (1994-2000). Σκοπός μας ήταν να περιγραφεί και να αναλυθεί η επιδημιολογία της φυματίωσης στη Δυτική Ελλάδα (Νομοί Ηλείας, Αχαΐας, Αιτωλοακαρνανίας), ώστε να εξετασθεί η επάρκεια ολόκληρου του συστήματος επιτήρησης και ελέγχου για τη δηλωτέα αυτή νόσο στο ΚΕΕΛΠΝΟ, καθώς και να αξιολογηθεί η εξέλιξη του δείκτη διαμόλυνσης της φυματίωσης στο νομό Ηλείας, στα πλαίσια πρόληψης της νόσου. Για τον λόγο αυτό, χρησιμοποιήθηκαν επίσημα στοιχεία από την ΠΟΥ, το ΚΕΕΛΠΝΟ, τις Νομαρχιακές αυτοδιοικήσεις, αλλά και αρχεία των νοσοκομείων ENΝΘΔΕ, του ΠΓΝ Πατρών, καθώς και του Κέντρου Υγείας Γαστούνης. Εν συνεχεία, μελετήθηκε η εφαρμογή της Άμεσα Επιτηρούμενης Θεραπείας (DOTS) σε 13 νεοδιαγνωσθέντες ασθενείς με φυματίωση, συγκριτικά με την έκβαση 41 πρώην διαγνωσθέντων ασθενών (μάρτυρες) χωρίς ΑΕΘ, αλλά με την έως τώρα συντηρητική αντιμετώπιση, όλοι κάτοικοι του Νομού Ηλείας. Για την ολοκλήρωση της μελέτης υπήρξε συνεργασία του Πνευμονολογικού Ιατρείου του Γ.Ν. Πύργου με τον ειδικά εκπαιδευμένο Γενικό/Οικογενειακό Ιατρό, ο οποίος πραγματοποιούσε τις κατ΄ οίκον επισκέψεις και προσωπικές συνεντεύξεις στους νέους ασθενείς, στους μάρτυρες αλλά και στα μέλη των οικογένειών τους. Για την στατιστική ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων μας, χρησιμοποιήθηκε το πρόγραμμα SPSS (11,0 – 15,0). Από επιδημιολογικές μελέτες προκύπτει ότι οι χώρες της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης παρουσιάζουν μια σταθερή μείωση του μέσου όρου επίπτωσης της φυματίωσης το διάστημα 1986-2006, με την Ελλάδα να έχει τις μικρότερες τιμές (4,7/100.000 το 2001 και 6/100.000 το 2007). Με βάση όμως «ενδεικτικές» επιδημιολογικές μελέτες-έρευνες της φυματίωσης στον Ελλαδικό χώρο σε αντίστοιχα διαστήματα, προκύπτει διακύμανση της επίπτωσης από 16 – 73/100.000. Αναφορικά με την έρευνά μας στη Δυτική Ελλάδα, η μέση ετήσια επίπτωση βρέθηκε να είναι 5,4 ανά 100.000 άτομα (4 Αχαΐα, 6 Αιτωλοακαρνανία, 7,2 Ηλεία), ενώ τα επίσημα στοιχεία από το ΚΕΕΛΠΝΟ παρουσιάζουν μόνο 3,8 κρούσματα ανά 100.000 πληθυσμό. Στην μελέτη μυκοβακτηριδιακής διαμόλυνσης για τον μαθητικό πληθυσμό του νομού Ηλείας, συγκρίνοντας τις δύο τριετίες 1994-1996 και 1998-2000, ο Μ.Ο. εξάπλωσης του ΔΜΔ για τους μαθητές του Δημοτικού μειώθηκε από 0,7% σε 0,16%, ενώ στους μαθητές του Γυμνασίου παρατηρήθηκε μια μικρή πτώση, από 2,51% σε 2,41%. Σε επίπεδο γειτονικών νομών (αλλά και αναπτυγμένων χωρών), ο μέσος φυματινικός δείκτης είναι <1%, ενώ ως εκρίζωση κατά την Π.Ο.Υ. νοείται ο περιορισμός του Δ.Δ.<0,1%. Με βάση τις διεθνείς οδηγίες, η θεραπευτική αντιφυματική αγωγή αποτελείται από INH, RIF, PZA και EMB για 2 μήνες και για τους επόμενους 4 μήνες χορηγούνται μόνο INH και RIF. Κατόπιν αξιολόγησης των αποτελεσμάτων της προοπτικής μας μελέτης υπό το πρόγραμμα DOTS, προκύπτει ότι τα ποσοστά επιτυχούς θεραπείας ήταν 84,6% (προσεγγίζοντας το κατώτερο 85% που έχει θέσει ο WHO), εκ των οποίων 69,2% είχαν αρνητικά πτύελα στο τέλος της θεραπείας και 15,4% ολοκλήρωσαν την θεραπεία χωρίς μικροβιολογική εξέταση πτυέλων (2 αθίγγανοι που δε συνεργάστηκαν). Αξίζει να σημειωθεί, ότι ένας ασθενής απεβίωσε και ένας εξαφανίστηκε, λόγω αλλαγής πόλης στην οποία εργαζόταν. Αντίθετα, για τους μάρτυρες μόνο το 75,6% επιβεβαιώνουν αποτελεσματικότητα της θεραπείας, το 49% έλαβε 9μηνη αντιφυματική αγωγή και το 36% 12μηνη. Η σημαντικότητα της κατ’ οίκον επιτηρούμενης θεραπείας, πέραν της επιτυχούς θεραπείας των ασθενών, παρουσιάζει οφέλη και για τα μέλη. Πριν την κατ’ οίκον επίσκεψη δεν είχε γίνει η διενέργεια Mantoux στο 43,3%, από τα μέλη των ασθενών, στους οποίους και έγινε κατά την επίσκεψη στις οικίες τους από το Γενικό Ιατρό. Αντίθετα, το ήμισυ από τα μέλη των οικογενειών των μαρτύρων, κατά την διάγνωση του ασθενούς τους, δεν προσήλθαν στο νοσοκομείο για διενέργεια Mantoux. Μετά τις επισκέψεις στις οικίες από τον Γενικό Ιατρό, τηρήθηκε απόλυτα η εφαρμογή των μέτρων πρόληψης και συνθηκών διαβίωσης (αερισμός, φωτεινότητα, καθαριότητα, συγχρωτισμός, κ.τ.λ.) στα μέλη των ασθενών. Στα δε μέλη των μαρτύρων ούτε εκεί εφαρμόζονταν σωστά (92,3%) μέτρα πρόληψης – προφύλαξης και αυτό συνέβη καθ’ όλη την διάρκεια θεραπείας του ασθενούς. Σχετικά με τη νοσηρότητα των μελών, από τους 30 συγγενείς – μέλη των ασθενών, οι 4 (13,3%) χρειάστηκαν χημειοπροφύλαξη, ενώ από τους 111 συγγενείς – μέλη των μαρτύρων, οι 14 (12,6%) χρειάστηκαν χημειοπροφύλαξη και οι 7 (6,3%) νόσησαν και έλαβαν θεραπεία. Συμπερασματικά, η σωστή αντιμετώπιση του προβλήματος δεν έγκειται μόνο στην έγκαιρη διάγνωση και θεραπεία, αλλά και στην αξιόπιστη καταγραφή των κρουσμάτων που θα μας ευαισθητοποιήσουν στο να αντιληφθούμε την πραγματικά ανησυχητική διάσταση του προβλήματος και να χρησιμοποιήσουμε αποτελεσματικότερους τρόπους πρόληψης και αντιμετώπισης. Για την πληρέστερη δήλωση των κρουσμάτων, θα πρέπει να υπάρχει ευαισθητοποίηση και ένα εύκολο και προσιτό δίκτυο επικοινωνίας μεταξύ του ΚΕΕΛΠΝΟ, των Νοσοκομειακών αλλά και των ιδιωτών ιατρών, των Κ.Υ. αλλά και των Νομαρχιακών Αυτοδιοικήσεων, προκειμένου να κατανοηθεί επακριβώς ο τρόπος καταγραφής και αποστολής των στοιχείων, κατόπιν διάγνωσης των κρουσμάτων. Η άμεσα επιτηρούμενη θεραπεία, στοχεύει όχι μόνο στη σωστή παρακολούθηση και ίαση των ασθενών με φυματίωση, αλλά και στην εκπαίδευση των μελών των οικογενειών τους σε θέματα πρόληψης και βελτίωσης των επιβαρυντικών παραγόντων διαβίωσης, μειώνοντας σημαντικά τη νοσηρότητα του πληθυσμού. / Tuberculosis is an infectious disease transmitted aerogen and caused by bacteria which belong to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. In the past few years it constitutes an increasing problem of public health with a worldwide incidence rate of 139/100 000 population in the year 2007, while in Europe the incidence was 54 and in Greece 5.9, respectively. The accurate recording of cases contributes to the actual mapping of the burden of the disease leading thus to focused therapeutic interventions, which can be also achieved in our country, according to the goals set by WHO, i.e. the decrease of morbidity and mortality from tuberculosis at least the half until 2015, in comparison to 1990 and the eradication of the disease until 2050. In the present research two epidemiologic studies were carried out, concerning a) the epidemiology of tuberculosis in Western Greece and the evaluation of completeness of TB notifications (2000-2003), b) the estimation of tuberculin status in school population in the Prefecture of Ilia (1994-2000). The aim of the studies was to described and analyze the epidemiological characteristics of tuberculosis in Europe in comparison to Greece, to describe and analyze the epidemiology of tuberculosis in Western Greece (Prefectures Ilia, Achaia, Etoloakarnania) and to evaluate the completeness of TB notifications in order to examine the effectiveness of the surveillance system and the effectiveness of disease control and prevention, as well as to evaluate the tuberculin status in the prefecture of Ilia, in order to examine if satisfactory progress has been achieved in the control and prevention of tuberculosis. For these purposes, official data of WHO, KEELPNO (Hellenic Centre of Disease Control), the local and prefectoral self-administrations were used, as well as records of the hospitals in the examined area and of the Health Centre of Gastouni. Furthermore, a study was carried out, implementing a Directly Observed Treatment Short Course (DOTS) programme in the prefecture of Ilia (Western Greece) and assessing the efficacy of the WHO-recommended strategy in 13 newly detected pulmonary tuberculosis cases in comparison to 41 TB cases managed conventionally. In collaboration with the clinic of pulmonology of the general hospital of Pyrgos a general practitioner who was educated in DOTS strategy carried out home visits and completed a questionnaire in a face-to-face interview with the newly diagnosed patients, the past treated patients as well as the household members of the patients. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS for Windows (v.11.0 – v.15.0). According to the results of the epidemiological studies, the countries of the European Union present a steady decline of the average incidence of tuberculosis (<20/100 000), with Greece presenting the lowest rates (4.7/100 000, 2001). Based on other “indicative” epidemiological studies carried out in Greece, the incidence of tuberculosis varies from 16 – 73, respectively. In regard to the study performed in Western Greece, the mean annual incidence was found to be 5.4 (4 in Achaia, 6 in Etoloakarnania and 7.2 in Ilia), respectively, while the official data from KEELPNO for Western Greece revealed only 3.8 cases per 100 000 population. Finally, for the school population in the prefecture of Ilia, comparing the two three-year periods from 1994-1996 and 1998-2000, the mean prevalence of positive tuberculin status in the primary schoolchildren declined from 0.7% to 0.16%, while in the secondary schoolchildren we observed a very small decline, from 2.51% to 2.41%. In the neighboring prefectures (but also in developed countries), the mean prevalence of positive tuberculin status is <1%, while as indicator for eradication WHO determine a positive tuberculin status<0.1%. Based on the international guidelines, the antituberculosis therapy comprises INH, RIF, PZA and EMB for 2 months and for the following next 4 months only INH and RIF are taking. The evaluation of the results of the prospective DOTS study shows treatment success in 84.6% (approximating the lower limit of 85% set by the WHO), out of them 69.2% had negative saliva swab test at the end of treatment and 15.4% completed the treatment without microbiological examination of the saliva (2 gypsies who showed non compliance). One case under DOTS programme died during the study and one was lost to follow-up, because of change of residence. On the contrary, among the past treated cases 75.6% confirmed treatment effectiveness, in 49% after 9 month therapy duration and in the 36% after 12, respectively. The importance of the Directly Observed Treatment Short Course, beyond the successful treatment of patients, presents benefits also for the household members. Before the 1st home visit, Mantoux test was not carried out in 43.3% of the household members, but performed in all members during the 1st home visit by the general practitioner. On the contrary, 50% of the household members of the past treated patients had not carried out Mantoux test after diagnosis confirmation in the past treated patients, since they did not visit the hospital/health center for vaccination. After the doctor’s home visits, the family members adhered to the preventive measures and adequate living conditions (airing, brightness, cleanness, etc.). In the members of past treated patients the preventive measures were not met in 92.3% during the whole treatment period. With regard to the morbidity of the members of DOTS patients, from the 30 household members 4 (13.3%) needed chemoprophylaxis, while from the 111 members of past treated patients, 14 (12.6%) needed chemoprophylaxis and 7 (6.3%) antituberculosis treatment. In conclusion, the adequate confrontation of the problem does not lie only in the early diagnosis and treatment of TB, but also in the reliable notification of cases, in order to create public awareness of the burden and to implement more effective control and prevention measures. For optimal monitoring a more accurate and to all accessible communication network with proper and sincere co-operation between all actors (KEELPNO, hospitals, doctors in private praxis, health centers and prefectoral self-governments) is needed, in order to improve the accuracy of the notification system. The Directly Observed Treatment Short Course aims not only in the appropriate control and cure of the TB patients, but also in the education of the household members, in regard to prevention and improvement of aggravating risk factors, decreasing thus considerably the burden of the disease.

The purpose of this study is to explore and describe the knowledge, attitudes and experiences of health care workers who care for patients receiving treatment under DOTS strategy at public health facilities in the Windhoek District of the Khomas Region. A qualitative explorative, descriptive and contextual research design was used in this study. A purposive sampling was used to select participants who met the inclusion criteria for the study. The inclusion criteria was to be a health care worker who at the time of the study was working with patients who are on DOT for at least 6 months. A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect data. The study was conducted in the Windhoek district of the Khomas region, with a sample of 14 health care workers. Data was analysed by means of content analysis, a process of organizing and integrating narrative, qualitative data according to emerging themes and concepts. The three themes, which emerged from data analysis, were the knowledge of health care workers regarding the implementation of DOTS, the attitudes of health care workers towards patients on DOT which may affect the success of their treatments, and the experiences of health care workers when attending to patients on DOTS. The findings from the study may be used to engage stakeholders to address the shortcomings that exist in the implementation of the DOTS strategy in the district. / Health Studies / M.A. (Nursing Science)

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo analisar o modo como vem sendo implementado o tratamento diretamente observado (TDO) da tuberculose (TB) pulmonar no município de Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, identificando suas aproximações com as ações de Promoção da Saúde recomendadas/sugeridas pelo Programa Nacional de Controle da Tuberculose. O estudo foi realizado com base no referencial da Promoção da Saúde, e teve caráter qualitativo do tipo exploratório-descritivo. As informações analisadas foram obtidas a partir de entrevistas semi-estruturadas com nove profissionais da saúde envolvidos no TDO bem como de documentos oficiais e manuais técnicos de controle da (TB). O projeto foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul e pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da Secretaria Municipal de Saúde de Porto Alegre. Os resultados foram organizados em uma categoria principal “O Cenário do TDO da TB em Serviços de Saúde de Porto Alegre” que se divide em três subcategorias: “As palavras das gestoras: nossa fala é a fala do Ministério”, “A consciência dos limites da prática: TDO não é a nossa realidade” e “É preciso ampliar: não existe solução mágica para a tuberculose”. As informações coletadas tem a ver com a visão dos gestores sobre a implementação do TDO da TB em Porto Alegre, os limites encontrados pelos profissionais da saúde para realizarem o TDO e os movimentos, na lógica da promoção da saúde, realizados pelos profissionais no controle da doença. A pesquisa identificou uma baixa cobertura de TDO em Porto Alegre, além de discrepâncias entre o que é recomendado e planejado para a implementação do TDO e o que é colocado em prática. Por fim, foram indicadas estratégias que levam em conta os determinantes sociais da saúde, identificadas pelos profissionais como importantes para o controle da TB. Contudo, segundo os participantes ainda é pouco explorada a potência destes projetos para a realização do TDO. Sugere-se, devido à importância e à complexidade do tema TB, que se siga investindo em estudos que analisem o contexto de implementação do TDO, analisando os limites e as possibilidades da realização de ações que objetivem a promoção da saúde dos usuários acometidos por TB. / This research aimed at analyzing how the Directly Observed Therapy (DOT) of lung tuberculosis (TB) is being implemented in the municipality of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, by identifying its approaches to the actions of Health Promotion as recommended and suggested by the National Program of Tuberculosis Control. The study was qualitative. It was carried out on the basis of Health Promotion assumptions and concepts. Data was gathered from semi-structured interviews with nine health professionals who are involved in the implementation of the DOT strategy in selected health services, as well as from official documents and technical manuals of TB control. The project was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul and by the Research Ethics Committee of the Municipal Health Secretariat of Porto Alegre. The results were organized in a main category called “The scenario of the DOT of TB in Health Services of Porto Alegre”. This category was divided into three subcategories: “The managers’ words: our speech is the speech of the Ministry”, The awareness of the limits of practice: DOT is not our reality” and “Broadening is needed: there is no magic solution for TB”. The information analysis comprised the managers´ vision as to the implementation of the supervised tuberculosis treatment, the difficulties of health professionals to carry out the DOT and the movements within the health promotion logics, made by the professionals within the field of disease control. The research led to the conclusion that there is a low coverage of the DOT in Porto Alegre. In addition, there are discrepancies between what is recommended and planned for the implementation of DOT and what is put into practice. At last, strategies that take into account the social determinants of health were indicated by the professionals as important for TB control. However, the research participants suggested that the potential of these projects for the realization of DOT is still less explored. Due to the importance and complexity of the TB issue, it is suggested the continuing of investments on studies that analize the context of the implementation of DOT, analyzing the limits and possibilities of performing actions to promote the health of people with TB. / Este estudio tenía como objetivo analizar el modo cómo está siendo implantado el tratamiento directamente observado (TDO) de la tuberculosis (TB) pulmonar en la municipalidad de Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, identificando sus aproximaciones con las acciones de Promoción de la Salud recomendadas y sugeridas por el Programa Nacional de Control de la Tuberculosis. El estudio fue realizado con base en el referencial de la Promoción de la Salud, y delineado por el carácter cualitativo del tipo exploratorio-descriptivo. Las informaciones analizadas se obtuvieron a partir de entrevistas semiestructuradas con 9 profesionales de la salud involucrados en el TDO así como de documentos oficiales y manuales técnicos de control de la TB. El proyecto fue aprobado por el Comité de Ética en Investigación de la Universidad Federal del Rio Grande do Sul y por el Comité de Ética en Investigación de la Secretaría Municipal de Salud de Porto Alegre. Los resultados se organizaron en una categoría principal “El Escenario del TDO de la TB en Servicios de Salud de Porto Alegre” que se divide en três subcategorías: “Las palabras de la gestión: nuestra habla es el habla del Ministerio”, “La consciencia de los límites de la práctica: TDO no es la nuestra realidad” y “Es preciso ampliar: no existe solución mágica para la TB”. El análisis de las informaciones comprendió la visión de los gestores en cuanto a la implementación del TDO de la TB, las dificultades de los profesionales de la salud para realizar el TDO y los movimientos, en la lógica de la promoción de la salud, realizados por los profesionales en el control de la enfermedad. El estudio generó la conclusión de que hay una baja cobertura de TDO en Porto Alegre. Además, hay discrepancias entre lo que es planeado y orientado con lo que es puesto en práctica, con respecto al TDO. Por fin, se identificaron estrategias innovadoras realizadas por los profesionales de la salud para el control de la TB, que consideran los determinantes sociales de la salud. Sin embargo, todavía es poco explorada la potencia de estos proyectos para la realización del TDO. Debido a la importancia y a la complejidad del tema TB, se sugiere seguir con inversiones en estudios que presentan nuevas estrategias para el control de la enfermedad.