L’objectif général de ce travail était d’étudier la relation entre exposition professionnelle maternelle aux solvants organiques et malformations congénitales.Ce projet s’est appuyé sur les données de la cohorte PELAGIE. Il s’agit d’une cohorte mère enfant avec inclusion de 3 421 femmes en début de grossesse en population générale en Bretagne. L’exposition aux solvants était définie par différentes méthodes (expositions déclarées, matrices emplois-expositions, dosages urinaires de métabolites de solvants chlorés et d’éthers de glycol).Nous avons mis en évidence une relation entre l’exposition aux solvants mesurée par des méthodes indirectes et les malformations congénitales. Puis, pour un échantillon aléatoire de451 femmes, nous avons étudié les déterminants de la détection urinaire des métabolites de solvants. Enfin, dans le cadre d’une étude cas-témoins dans la cohorte, la relation entre métabolites urinaires de solvants et malformations congénitales a été étudiée. / The aim of this project was to study the relation between maternal occupational exposure to solvents and congenital malformations.This project used data from the PELAGIE study. This is a mother child cohort which had included 3 421 women from the general population at the beginning of their pregnancy in Britany. Occupational exposure to solvents was assessed by different methods (self-report, job exposure matrix, and urinary determination of glycol ethers and chlorinated solvents metabolites).We have shown an association between solvent exposure using indirect method of assessment and congenital malformations. Using a randomized sample of 451 women, we have studied the occupational and non occupational determinants of urinary detection of glycol ethers and chlorinated solvents metabolites. Finally, we have studied in a nested case-control study, the relation between urinary solvent metabolites and congenital malformations.

Notre avons étudié le rôle de la profession et des expositions professionnelles aux solvants pétroliers et chlorés dans deux études épidémiologiques sur les facteurs de risque professionnels des cancers du sein chez l'homme et chez la femme. A l’inverse du cancer du sein féminin (50000 nouveaux cas par an en France), le cancer du sein chez l’homme est un cancer rare (<500 cas par an). Il constitue cependant un modèle intéressant pour l’étude des expositions professionnelles qui sont généralement plus élevées chez l’homme que chez la femme. Chez les hommes, nos résultats suggèrent un risque de cancer augmenté chez les mécaniciens de véhicules à moteur et un rôle cancérogène des solvants tels que le benzène et le trichloréthylène. Chez les femmes, malgré des risques élevés mais non significatifs dans plusieurs professions, aucune association avec les expositions aux solvants n’était mise en évidence pour les faibles niveaux d’exposition observés. / We have investigated the role of the occupation and of occupational exposures to petroleum and chlorinated solvents using the data of two epidemiological studies on occupational risk factors of breast cancers in men and in women. Unlike female breast cancer (50,000 new cases per year inFrance), cancer of male breast cancer is a rare disease (<500 cases per year). It should be seen as an interesting model for studying the effects of occupational exposures in the disease as these exposure are generally much higher in men than in women. For men, our results suggest that the risk of cancer is increased among motor vehicle mechanics and support the hypothesis of a carcinogenic effect of solvents such as benzene and trichloroethylene in disease occurrence. In women, several occupations were at increased risk of breast cancer, but results were generally not statistically significant. No association of female breast cancer incidence with exposure to solvents was observed.

L’importance des facteurs de risque professionnels dans l’asthme est bien établie, mais le rôle de certains agents doit être clarifié. Les objectifs de la thèse sont d’évaluer les liens entre les expositions aux produits de nettoyage et l’asthme, et d’étudier l’impact et la prise en compte du biais du travailleur sain, dans l’étude Epidémiologique des facteurs Génétiques et Environnementaux de l’Asthme (EGEA, 2047 sujets dont 1477 adultes avec des données professionnelles). L’exposition aux produits de nettoyage a été estimée par une expertise et une matrice emploi-exposition. Chez les femmes, l’asthme actuel était associé à l’exposition aux détartrants (OR=2.4 (1.1-5.3)), et aux sprays (2.9 (1.0-8.1)) et à l’ammoniac (3.1 (1.2-7.8)) chez les aides-soignantes. Les détartrants et l’ammoniac sont des irritants. L’exposition aux produits de nettoyage était associée à l’asthme sévère et sans sensibilisation allergique. Deux analyses ont souligné l’importance du biais du travailleur sain dans l’asthme. Un biais de sélection à l’embauche a été observé chez des sujets avec un asthme sévère dans l’enfance. Un modèle marginal structural a permis de prendre en compte le biais du travailleur sain dans l’étude de l’effet des expositions professionnelles sur l’expression clinique de l’asthme au cours de la vie. En plus du rôle d’asthmogènes connus, le rôle d’agents moins bien établis, comprenant des irritants (1.6 (1.0-2.4)) était suggéré. Les résultats sont cohérents avec un rôle des irritants dans l’asthme lié au travail. Ils soutiennent une utilisation plus large d’approches d’analyse causale pour contrôler le biais du travailleur sain dans les études des risques professionnels. / It is well-recognized that workplace exposures importantly contribute to the burden of asthma, but the role of some agents needs to be clarified. The aims of the thesis are to evaluate the relationships between occupational exposure to cleaning products and asthma, and to study the impact and the control of the healthy worker effect bias, in the Epidemiological study on the Genetics and Environment of Asthma (EGEA, 2047 subjects including 1477 adults with data regarding occupations).Exposure to cleaning products was estimated by an expert assessment and a job-exposure matrix. In women, current asthma was associated with exposure to decalcifiers (OR=2.4 (1.1-5.3)), and to sprays (2.9 (1.0-8.1)) and ammonia (3.1 (1.2-7.8)) in personal care workers. Decalcifiers and ammonia are irritants. Exposure to cleaning products was associated with severe asthma, and asthma without allergic sensitization. Two analyses underlined the important impact of the healthy worker effect in asthma. A healthy worker hire effect was observed in subjects with severe asthma in childhood. Using a marginal structural model, we studied the effect of occupational exposure on asthma clinical expression over a lifetime, while controlling for the healthy worker effect bias. Elevated risks of asthma were observed, not only for known asthmagens, but also for other agents which role in asthma is less established, including irritants (1.6 (1.0-2.4)). The results are consistent with a role of irritants in work-related asthma. They support a broader use of causal inference approaches, to control the healthy worker effect bias in studies of occupational risk factors.

O Estuário de Santos - São Vicente é uma região degradada por contaminantes liberados diretamente pelo seu parque industrial no ar, na água e no solo da região, é considerado o exemplo mais importante de degradação ambiental por produtos químicos provenientes de fontes industriais. Existe uma grande associação entre doenças cardiovasculares, principalmente a hipertensão arterial, e a exposição ambiental a esses contaminantes presentes nas áreas, o que gera uma preocupação pois nestas áreas residem um grande número de pessoas expostas a estes contaminantes por um longo período de tempo. No Brasil existe uma grande prevalência de mortes por doenças cardiovasculares, dentre elas a hipertensão. A prevalência de hipertensão no Brasil é de aproximadamente 20%. Objetivo: avaliar a prevalência de hipertensão arterial e seus fatores de risco na população deste estudo. Métodos: Um estudo transversal realizado para avaliar a prevalência da hipertensão em indivíduos com idade entre 19 e 60 anos, bem como fatores de risco para esta doença, em quatro áreas contaminadas localizadas no Estuário (área 1 - Pilões e Água Fria; 2 - Cubatão; área 3 - São Vicente e área 4 - Vicente de Carvalho - Guarujá) e uma área fora do Estuário (área 5 - Bertioga). As associações entre as variáveis categóricas foram testadas através do teste do quiquadrado de Pearson incorporando a correção de Yates ou o teste exato de Fisher. Modelos univariados e múltiplos de regressão logística foram aplicados para avaliar os fatores de risco para a hipertensão. Resultados: A maior prevalência de hipertensão foi encontrada na Área 3 - São Vicente (28,4%), e a maior parte da população relatou morar na região por mais de 20 anos. Os fatores de risco para hipertensão arterial foram: morar nas áreas 2 - Cubatão (OR: 1,3; IC95%: 1,0-1,6) e na área 3 - São Vicente (OR: 1,4; IC95%: 1,1-1,8); ser analfabeto (OR: 1,9; IC95%: 1,1-3,2); morar na região há mais de 20 anos (OR: 1,2; IC95%: 1,0-1,5); faixa etária entre 36-60 anos (OR: 3,9; IC95%: 3.3- 4.6) e exposição ocupacional pregressa a produtos químicos (OR: 1,3; IC95%: 1,1-1,6). Conclusão: Duas décadas após o ápice da contaminação ambiental na região ainda é possível identificar tanto a presença dos contaminantes quanto seus efeitos adversos sobre a população residente nas áreas analisadas. Os resultados indicaram que morar em áreas contaminadas, principalmente por um longo período de tempo, é fator de risco para a hipertensão / The Estuary of Santos - São Vicente is an area degraded by contaminants emitted directly by its industrial park to air, water and soil of the region, and is considered the most important example of environmental degradation by chemicals from industrial sources. There is a strong association between cardiovascular diseases, especially hypertension, and environmental exposure to these contaminants in areas, which It generates a concern since these areas live a large number of people exposed to such contaminants for a long time. In Brazil there is a high prevalence of deaths from cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension. The prevalence of hypertension in Brazil is approximately 20%. Objective: To evaluate the prevalence of hypertension and its risk factors in the study population. Methods: A cross-sectional study to evaluate the prevalence of hypertension in individuals aged between 19 and 60 years, as well as risk factors for this disease in four contaminated areas located in the Estuary (area 1 - Pilões e Água Fria; 2 - Cubatao; Area 3 - São Vicente and area 4 - Vicente de Carvalho - Guaruja) and an area outside Estuary (area 5 - Bertioga). The associations between categorical variables were tested by Pearson\'s chi-square incorporating Yates\' correction or Fisher\'s exact test. Univariate and multiple logistic regression models were applied to evaluate the risk factors for hypertension. Results: The highest prevalence of hypertension was found in Area 3 - São Vicente (28.4%), and most of the population reported living in the region for over 20 years. Risk factors for hypertension were: living in Areas 2 - Cubatao (OR: 1.3; 95% CI: 1.0-1.6) and the area 3 - São Vicente (OR: 1.4; 95% CI: 1 , 1 to 1.8); being illiterate (OR: 1.9; 95% CI: 1.1 to 3.2); living in the region for over 20 years (OR: 1.2; 95% CI: 1.0-1.5); aged between 36-60 years (OR: 3.9; 95% CI: 3.3- 4.6) and previous occupational exposure to chemicals (OR: 1.3; 95% CI: 1.1-1.6). Conclusion: Two decades after the culmination of environmental pollution in the region is still possible to identify both the presence of contaminants as their adverse effects on the resident population in the analyzed areas. The results indicated that live in contaminated areas, particularly over a long period of time, is a risk factor for hypertension

Trabalhadores da área da saúde, em laboratórios, hospitais e/ou outros locais, estão potencialmente expostos a numerosos riscos ocupacionais. A ampla e crescente utilização de fármacos antineoplásicos, na quimioterapia, é considerada um importante risco químico para o pessoal envolvido no preparo e na administração destas substâncias. O manuseio destes fármacos sem cuidados pode levar a inúmeros efeitos tóxicos. Alguns destes fármacos foram classificados pela IARC como carcinógenos e provavelmente carcinógenos para humanos. Para tais fármacos é difícil atingir uma dose de não efeito observado, pois a patologia provocada por eles é considerada multifatorial. Este estudo objetivou validar método para a determinação de ciclofosfamida, um dos fármacos mais utilizados e, classificado como carcinógeno para humanos, para posterior aplicação em amostras coletadas em situação de real exposição. O analito foi identificado e quantificado por CG-EM após extração do analito em fase sólida e derivação com anidrido trifluoroacético. A ifosfamida foi utilizada como padrão interno e o fármaco foi determinado em amostras provenientes de wipe test e luvas, coletadas em quatro hospitais italianos, dentro de um intervalo de calibração de 1 a 100 ng/mL. Os intervalos de coeficiente de variação obtidos, no ensaio da precisão do método, foram entre 0,5 e 10% (intra-ensaio) e O e 19% (interensaio). Amostras contendo ciclofosfamida foram analisadas durante um mês, sem perda significativa do analito. A porcentagem de recuperação foi 98,9%. Os valores de ciclofosfamida nas 176 amostras coletadas variaram de inferior ao limite de quantificação (1,0 ng/mL) a 141.186 ng. Os resultados, bem correlacionados com aqueles relatados na literatura, sugerem que o método pode ser utilizado na identificação da ciclofosfamida em diversas superfícies e materiais e pode ser considerado ferramenta útil na monitorização da exposição ocupacional à esta substância. / Workers in laboratories and hospitals have potential exposure to numerous occupational hazards. The widespread use of antineoplastic drugs in chemotherapy is considered an important risk to staff involved in the preparation and administration to these drugs. Careless handling may lead toxic effects among the occupational exposure subjects. Some antineoplastic drugs were classified by IARC as carcinogenic and probably carcinogenic for humans. For carcinogenic agents the absence of a no-adverse-effect-Ievel is supposed. In this study cyclophosphamide was quantified adapting a previous analytical method by gas chromatography coupled mass spectrometry (GC-MS) after solid phase extraction and derivatization with trifluoroacetic anhydride. This drug in fact is one of the most frequently used alkylating antineoplastic agent for different types of tumors and classified as human carcinogen. The ifosfamide was used as internal standard and the drug was measured by analysis in wipe samples and gloves, collected from four different hospitals, within a range from 1 to 100 ng/mL. The values of variation coefficient varied from 0.5 to 10% (intra-assay) and from 0 to 19% (interassay). Frozen reference wipe samples containing cyclophosphamide were analysed over one month and no significant loss was observed. The range obtained for bias assay was 83-116% and the recovery was 98.9%. The cyclophosphamide was measured in 176 samples with values ranging from below limit of quantification (1.0 ng/mL) to 141186 ng. The results, well related with those reported in literature, suggest that this method can be used to identify the cyclophosphamide from surfaces and materials samples and can be considered useful in exposure assessment to this drug.

O n-hexano é um solvente usado industrialmente, e pode causar neuropatia periférica. O indicador biológico da exposição ocupacional ao n-hexano é a 2,5-hexanodiona (2,5HD). O objetivo deste estudo foi validar um método para determinação da 2,5HD urinária por cromatografia em fase gasosa, com detetor de ionização de chama. A validação do método levou em consideração dois tipos de tratamento da amostra, com hidrólise ácida e sem hidrólise ácida. Foi utilizada coluna HP1 (15m x 530&#181;m e espessura do filme 1,5&#181;m), gás de arraste He:4,2mL/min. e ciclohexanona como padrão interno. O método apresentou limites de detecção e quantificação, respectivamente 0,05 e 0,1 mg/L, linearidade de 0,1-20mg/mL, r = 0,999, recuperação entre 98-102%, com precisão e exatidão. Para verificar a aplicação do método foram analisadas 87 amostras de trabalhadores de indústrias de calçados (52 do grupo exposto e 35 do grupo controle). As amostras com hidrólise apresentaram níveis de 2,5HD cerca de dez vezes maiores quando comparados com as amostras sem hidrólise, esta diferença foi estatisticamente significante (p<0,0001), mas os níveis de 2,5HD não ultrapassaram o índice Biológico Máximo Permitido (IBMP) de 5mg/g de creatinina, em nenhuma das amostras analisadas. Os resultados indicam que o método validado mostrou aplicação prática para monitorização biológica, e as amostras que passaram pelo tratamento de hidrólise ácida apresentaram maiores níveis de detecção. / N-hexane is a solvent used in industries, and can cause peripheral neuropathy. The bioindicator in the biological monitoring of workers exposed to n-hexane is the 2,5-hexanedione (2,5HD). This study was developed in order to validate a method for 2,5HD analysis in urine by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector considering two types of sample preparing with and without acid hydrolysis. The chosen technique was performed with HP1 column measured 15m by 530&#181;m inner bore. Helio was used as the carrier gas at a flow rate of 4,2mL/min. The detection and quantification limits were respectively 0,05 and 0,1 mg/L. A linear relationship (r = 0,999) was observed in the range from 0,1-20mg/mL. The average recovery was 98-102%, with precision and accuracy. To apply this method, 87 samples from shoe factory workers were analyzed (52 exposed group and 35 control group). The samples with acid hydrolysis show levels ten times higher than samples without acid hydrolysis. This difference was statistically significant (p<0,0001), but this levels weren\'t higher than the Biological Exposure Index (BEI) were recommended value is 5mg/g creatinine, in any of the analyzed samples. These results reveal that the validated method has application for biological monitoring, and the samples with acid hydrolysis showed rates higher than the samples without hydrolysis.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 100-107).

Occupational exposure-related hearing loss is a significant health concern for affected workers. Organic solvent exposure has emerged as an important contributor to hearing loss. It is thought that hearing loss related to solvent and noise exposure is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). The glutathione associated enzymes and the manganese superoxide dismutase enzymes (SOD2) are important components of the cochlear hair cellâs defense against oxidative stress. This study is aimed to determine whether polymorphisms within the glutathione S-transferases (GST) P1 and GSTM1, glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX1), and SOD2 are associated with hearing status in solvent exposed factory workers. Genotypes for the GSTM1 + vs. null, GSTP1 Ile105Val, GPX1 Pro198Leu, SOD2 Val16Ala polymorphisms along with hearing status were determined in factory workers exposed to organic solvents. Hearing tests consisted of pure tone audiometric (PTA) thresholds from 3-6 kHz and distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) for 3-6 kHz. Bivariate and multivariate regression analysis was undertaken to assess for association between polymorphisms and hearing outcomes. The GSTP1 Val/Ile genotype at position 105 was associated with higher PTA thresholds (β=12.41, P value= 0.01) from 3-6 kHz in workers below age 22-43. The analysis showed a protective association of the SOD2 Ala/Val genotype (β= -26.42, P value= 0.025) and The GPX1 Leu/Leu genotypes (β=47.81, P value= 0.034) with audiometric thresholds from 3-6 kHz in individuals above age 43. This small cross-sectional study suggests that polymorphisms within the antioxidant system may alter susceptibility to hearing loss in workers exposed to organic solvents. These results also suggest the mechanisms by which this affect are mediated are complex and should be further investigated.

In order to investigate the etiology of and evaluate interventions for work-related back injuries, researchers need efficient, accurate occupational exposure assessment methods suitable for large samples. The chapters in this thesis examine critical decisions using electromyography (EMG): How should exposure be measured? For what duration? Who should be measured, and how many times? Low-back EMG, or muscle activity data, was collected during 138 full-shift field measurements over 30 different job titles at 50 different worksites in 5 heavy industries: forestry, transportation, wood products, construction, and warehousing. Observations and self-reports of posture, manual materials handling (MMH), and driving exposures were collected concurrently. 1) Variability of EMG calibration measurements was investigated on right/left sides, multiple trials, 4 positions, and pre/post-shift. Position accounts for the majority of explained variability; there is little to gain by measuring multiple trials or pre- and post-shift, but measuring both sides and multiple positions is worthwhile. 2) Observation and self-report data were easier to collect and cheaper than the EMG direct measure. Costs and successful field performance need to be weighed against the added data detail when making choices about exposure assessment techniques for epidemiological studies. 3) Observed and self-reported exposures were used to predict EMG exposure metrics using mixed multiple linear regression models. Regression models using observed variables predicted 43-50% of the variability in the EMG metrics, while self-reported variables predicted 21%-36%. The observation exposure model provides a low-cost alternative to direct measurement. The self-reported exposure model should be considered with more caution. 4) Full-shift EMG data was resampled for 4, 2, and 1 hour, and for 10 and 2 minute durations to determine the optimal sampling duration. Bias was consistently low, but shorter durations had higher absolute error, percentage error, and limits of agreement. Durations of 4 and 2 hours may be acceptable but those less than 1 hour had large errors. 5) Components of EMG variance were calculated between- and within-subject, and between- industry, company, job, and post hoc grouping. Resolution, contrast, and exposure-response relationship attenuation were calculated for each grouping scheme. The post hoc scheme had the highest contrast and lowest resolution.

Cancer du poumon associé à l’exposition au nickel, au chrome VI et au cadmium dans le milieu de travail utilisant deux études populationnelles cas-témoins à Montréal. Au début des années 1990, le nickel, le chrome VI et le cadmium ont été classés en tant qu’agents cancérigènes de classe 1 par le CIRC (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer). Cependant, les résultats des études ayant permis la classification de ces métaux n’ont pas toujours été reproduits, et d’importantes questions demeurent quant aux effets de ces métaux à de faibles niveaux d’exposition. Un plus grand nombre de recherches empiriques est donc nécessaire afin de réaffirmer la cancérogénicité de ces agents, et d’identifier les circonstances dans lesquelles ils peuvent être néfastes. L'objectif de cette étude était d'explorer la relation entre l’exposition à un des métaux (soit le nickel, le chrome VI, ou le cadmium) et les risques subséquents de développer un cancer du poumon chez des travailleurs provenant de différents milieux de travail qui sont exposés à ces métaux à de différents degrés. Deux études cas-témoins de base populationnelle menées à Montréal ont fourni les données nécessaires pour examiner la cancérogénicité de ces métaux. La première étude était menée entre 1979 et 1986 chez des hommes âgés de 35 à 70 ans ayant un cancer dans l’un de 19 sites anatomiques de cancer sélectionnés. La seconde étude était menée entre 1996 et 2001 chez des hommes et des femmes âgés de 35 à 75 ans, avec un diagnostic de tumeur maligne au poumon. Dans ces deux études, les cas ont été recensés dans tous les hôpitaux de l'île de Montréal, tandis que les contrôles populationnels appariés par âge et stratifiés par sexe, ont été sélectionnés des listes électorales. Une entrevue avec chaque sujet a permis d'obtenir un historique d'emploi détaillé ainsi que des informations précises sur les facteurs de risques socio-économiques et personnels. Les descriptions de poste ont été évaluées par une équipe d'experts chimistes et hygiénistes afin de déterminer si le sujet a été exposé à chaque agent, et pour mesurer à la fois la concentration et la durée de chaque exposition, ainsi que l’exposition cumulative tout au long de la vie de chaque participant. Pour déterminer si une exposition à l’un des trois métaux en cause était associée à une augmentation de l'incidence du cancer du poumon, des données ont été analysées par régression logistique : des ajustements ont été effectués pour des facteurs de confusion pertinents incluant un historique détaillé du tabagisme. Des mesures catégoriques d'exposition cumulée ont été également analysées, ainsi que la modification des effets par le tabagisme. Les deux études ont été analysées séparément, puis par la suite combinées afin d'augmenter la puissance statistique. Les niveaux d'exposition mesurés dans cette population ne semblaient pas poser un excès de risque de cancer du poumon pour les travailleurs exposés au chrome VI. Cependant, ceux qui ont été exposés au nickel ont subi une augmentation significative du risque, et ce, quel que soit leur niveau d'exposition. Le risque de développer un cancer du poumon suite à une exposition au cadmium était élevé, mais pas de manière significative. Pour chacun des trois métaux, le risque de cancer du poumon était très élevé parmi les non-fumeurs, mais pas parmi les fumeurs. L’effet combiné du tabagisme et de l’exposition aux métaux était compatible avec un excès de risque additif. Cependant, les intervalles de confiance dans cette étude tendaient à être larges, et une faiblesse de puissance statistique peut limiter l’interprétation de certains résultats. Cette étude est unique dans la mesure où elle a fourni des preuves empiriques sur les risques de développer le cancer du poumon liés aux faibles niveaux d’exposition au nickel, au chrome VI, ou au cadmium provenant de divers contextes de travail. Dans la plupart des autres études, la majorité des expositions pertinentes n’ont pas été bien contrôlées. À l'inverse, cette étude a bénéficié de la collecte et de la disponibilité d'information détaillée concernant le tabagisme et d’autres facteurs de risque. Les résultats de cette étude ont d'importantes conséquences pour la santé publique, tant au niveau de la détermination des risques pour les travailleurs actuellement exposés à ces métaux, qu'au niveau de l’évaluation des risques pour la population en général, elle-même exposée à ces métaux par le biais de la pollution et de la fumée de cigarette. Cette analyse contribuera fort probablement à une réévaluation par le CIRC de la cancérogénicité de ces métaux. L'exploration de la relation entre les risques de cancer du poumon et l'exposition au nickel, au chrome VI et au cadmium est donc opportune et pertinente. / Nickel, chromium VI and cadmium were designated as IARC class 1 lung carcinogens in the early 1990s. However, the study results informing this designation have not been consistently replicated in the past two decades, and there remain some important questions about these metals’ effects at low levels of exposure. Further empiric research is therefore required to confidently reaffirm the carcinogenicity of these agents and to understand the circumstances in which they may be harmful. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between exposure to either nickel, chromium VI or cadmium and subsequent risk of lung cancer among workers exposed to these substances at a variety of levels and in a wide range of occupations. Two large population-based case-control studies conducted in Montreal provided the data to investigate the carcinogenicity of these substances. Study I was conducted from 1979 to 1986, and included males aged 35 to 70 diagnosed with cancer at any of 19 selected cancer sites. Study II was conducted from 1996 to 2001 and included men and women aged 35 to 75 diagnosed with lung malignancies. In both studies, cases were ascertained in all hospitals on the island of Montreal, while age- and sexstratified population controls were selected from electoral lists. Detailed job histories, as well as lifestyle and socioeconomic measures, were elicited by interviewers with each subject. Job descriptions were then evaluated by an expert team of chemists and hygienists in order to determine whether the subject was exposed to each agent, and if so, to create measures of concentration, duration, and cumulative exposure over the course of each participant’s lifetime. In order to determine whether lifetime exposure to any of the metals of interest was associated with increased incidence of lung cancer, exposure data were analysed by logistic regression, adjusting for relevant confounders including detailed smoking history. Categorical measures of cumulative exposure were analysed, and effect modification by smoking was also explored. Study I and II were first analysed separately, and then combined when appropriate to increase statistical power. At the exposure levels experienced by this population, subjects exposed to nickel incurred a small but significantly increased risk of cancer compared to those unexposed. Meanwhile, there did not appear to be any excess risk of lung cancer among workers exposed to chromium VI. Lung cancer risk was somewhat elevated, albeit not significantly so, after cadmium exposure. For each of the three metals, lung cancer risk was significantly elevated among non smokers, but not among smokers. The joint effect of smoking and exposure to each of the metals was compatible with an additive excess risk. However, confidence limits in this study tended to be wide, and lack of statistical power may limit interpretation of some of the results. This study is unique in providing empiric evidence on lung cancer risks associated with low levels of exposure to nickel, chromium VI, or cadmium originating from a variety of occupational contexts. While many studies have failed to control for important co-exposures, this study benefited from the collection and availability of detailed histories of exposure to tobacco and other potential confounders. The results of this study have important public health implications, both in terms of determining ongoing risk experienced by exposed workers, and in terms of assessing risk to the general population exposed to these metals by means of pollution and cigarette smoke. This analysis will likely contribute to an upcoming IARC re-evaluation of the carcinogenicity of these metals. Examination of the relationship between exposure to cadmium, chromium VI and nickel and subsequent risk of lung cancer is therefore timely and pertinent.