In theory, a facial reconstruction can sound quite easy. There are handbooks that describe the process step by step and for the untrained eye all skulls look almost the same. However, this is not the case. Every skull has it ́s unique shape and proportions which make up our significant variations in our faces. It is what make us distinguishable from one another. The work of a forensic artist combine science and art in the fields of archeology and anthropology with forensic methods. This paper will take you through the journey, beginning with the history with the development of the early science to our modern techniques in forensic cases. It will include case files of modern forensic facial reconstruction and reconstructions of famous people that has been done throughout the years. The analyze and discussion will focus on the problematic aspect of recreating a face for a human and the use of reconstruction in museums and if it ́s a reliable enough to use in forensic police work.

<p>Seven individuals from Surahammar in Västmanland Sweden are analyzed for the appearance of pathological and skeletal changes. The graves, all from within the walls of a fourteenth century church, are dated from the Viking age to late eighteenth century. The aim of this scientific essay is to find pathological conditions by doing an osteological analyze, x-ray analysis, an osteoporosis measurement and letting orthopedists assess the individuals. The aim is also to say something about the individuals’ general health and how they experience the changes they have in the skeleton. The various types of methods of analysis could confirm and add information to the osteological analysis and in some cases they had different diagnosis. All of the individuals had pathological changes in their upper and/or lower jaw with caries, calculus or apical periodontitis. Among several pathological and skeletal changes three individuals were diagnosed with osteoarthritis in their cervical vertebrae and one in the hip, one had enamel hypoplasia. One individual had both old and new fractures and two individuals had some bone density loss. But despite this their general health was very likely not bad and most of them could live a good life.Caroline Groth, Department of archaeology and osteology, Gotland University, 2010.Sura Gamla Kyrka – Analysis of pathological and skeletal changes in seven individuals.Seven individuals from Surahammar in Västmanland Sweden are analyzed for the appearance of pathological and skeletal changes. The graves, all from within the walls of a fourteenth century church, are dated from the Viking age to late eighteenth century. The aim of this scientific essay is to find pathological conditions by doing an osteological analyze, x-ray analysis, an osteoporosis measurement and letting orthopedists assess the individuals. The aim is also to say something about the individuals’ general health and how they experience the changes they have in the skeleton. The various types of methods of analysis could confirm and add information to the osteological analysis and in some cases they had different diagnosis. All of the individuals had pathological changes in their upper and/or lower jaw with caries, calculus or apical periodontitis. Among several pathological and skeletal changes three individuals were diagnosed with osteoarthritis in their cervical vertebrae and one in the hip, one had enamel hypoplasia. One individual had both old and new fractures and two individuals had some bone density loss. But despite this their general health was very likely not bad and most of them could live a good life.</p> / Osteoporosis och osteoarthritis då och nu

In this study bone material from six stone ship settings and a total of seven deposits of bones from two sites on the island of Gotland have been analyzed. Four ship settings from the burial site at Gålrum in Alskog parish and two from Tängelgårda in Lärbro parish. The ships contained both cremated remains and inhumations.  Human remains were identified in five of the analyzed ship settings and a minimum of six individuals was identified in total.  Animals were found in three of the ship settings, where one of them contained only the burned remains of a dog. Two of the ships contained inhumations, one in Gålrum and one in Tängelgårda. The one from Gålrum was determined to 17-19 years of age but of undetermined sex. The inhumation from Tängelgårda was determined to a male of 35-64 years of age.  Of the cremated remains none could be determined to sex but all were determined as adult individuals. The temperature that the cremated bones had been exposed to during the cremation was similar between the different ship settings, with one exception which had been exposed to a slightly higher temperature. The results of the material have also been compared with those of other osteological analysis from ship settings on Gotland. The interpretation of this has been that the amount of bone and the number of individuals that has been buried in stone ship settings vary from different sites. Some ship settings have contained several burials and have been interpreted as family graves (Pettersson 1982) which do not fit with the results from this analysis where all the ship settings contained a maximum of one or two human individuals, so the results from the ship settings on Gålrum and Tängelgårda differ from earlier interpretations of ship settings on Gotland.

This thesis is an attempt to gather and discuss the archaeological and osteological results that has been found in stone ship settings on Gotland. The bone material from five ship settings, one stone setting and a cairn from the bronze age complex at Rannarve in Klinte parish on Gotland has been osteologically analysed during this study to further expand the osteological results that are available from ship settings on Gotland and try to interpret this site. The aim is to try to find what artefacts and bone patterns that can be distinguished from the material found within ship settings. What patterns can be seen in artefacts, age, sex and burial contexts that has been found in ship settings? What are the most common patterns? / Den här uppsatsen är ett försök till att samla och diskutera vilka arkeologiska och osteologiska resultat som påträffats i skeppssättningar på Gotland. Benmaterialet från fem skeppssättningar, en stensättning och ett röse i Rannarve i Klinte socken på Gotland har analyserats osteologiskt för att utöka de osteologiska resultaten som finns tillgängliga för skeppssättningar på Gotland samt för att försöka tolka platsen. Målet är att försöka se vilka föremål och benmönster som går att urskilja från materialet och se vilka mönster som finns mellan fynd, ålder, kön och gravkontext i de olika skeppssättningarna, samt vilka mönster som är de mest vanliga.

Seven individuals from Surahammar in Västmanland Sweden are analyzed for the appearance of pathological and skeletal changes. The graves, all from within the walls of a fourteenth century church, are dated from the Viking age to late eighteenth century. The aim of this scientific essay is to find pathological conditions by doing an osteological analyze, x-ray analysis, an osteoporosis measurement and letting orthopedists assess the individuals. The aim is also to say something about the individuals’ general health and how they experience the changes they have in the skeleton. The various types of methods of analysis could confirm and add information to the osteological analysis and in some cases they had different diagnosis. All of the individuals had pathological changes in their upper and/or lower jaw with caries, calculus or apical periodontitis. Among several pathological and skeletal changes three individuals were diagnosed with osteoarthritis in their cervical vertebrae and one in the hip, one had enamel hypoplasia. One individual had both old and new fractures and two individuals had some bone density loss. But despite this their general health was very likely not bad and most of them could live a good life.Caroline Groth, Department of archaeology and osteology, Gotland University, 2010.Sura Gamla Kyrka – Analysis of pathological and skeletal changes in seven individuals.Seven individuals from Surahammar in Västmanland Sweden are analyzed for the appearance of pathological and skeletal changes. The graves, all from within the walls of a fourteenth century church, are dated from the Viking age to late eighteenth century. The aim of this scientific essay is to find pathological conditions by doing an osteological analyze, x-ray analysis, an osteoporosis measurement and letting orthopedists assess the individuals. The aim is also to say something about the individuals’ general health and how they experience the changes they have in the skeleton. The various types of methods of analysis could confirm and add information to the osteological analysis and in some cases they had different diagnosis. All of the individuals had pathological changes in their upper and/or lower jaw with caries, calculus or apical periodontitis. Among several pathological and skeletal changes three individuals were diagnosed with osteoarthritis in their cervical vertebrae and one in the hip, one had enamel hypoplasia. One individual had both old and new fractures and two individuals had some bone density loss. But despite this their general health was very likely not bad and most of them could live a good life. / Osteoporosis och osteoarthritis då och nu

An osteological study on human skeletal remains from Maassara in Egypt. The goal of the study was to get a good picture of the health of the individuals buried in the graves at Maassara. The study was combined of nine individuals. Two from the Early Dynastic period and six individuals from the Old Kingdom. All the adult individuals have some form of pathological change. Most pathological changes are in the spine. Most pathological changes were age-related. Some of the individuals were very poorly kept and the bones were very fragile.

Syftet med denna uppsats är att diskutera hästens kön i en gravkontext och som våtmarksoffer. Detta är en komparativ studie baserad på textuellt källmaterial. De teoretiska begreppen som kommer att användas är genusteori, kunskapsteori, agens och personlighetsteori, för att på så sätt närma sig frågan om valacken, hästens tredje kön.   Hästen har haft en betydande roll för människan och detta går att utläsa i de olika kontexterd är skelettmaterial av häst påträffats. Fyra kontexter under järnåldern behandlas i denna uppsats, båtgravar i Uppland, kammargravar på Björkö, ryttargravar på Gotland och våtmarksoffer på Öland och Gotland. Det är inte bara hästen som är viktig, utan även utrustning som återfanns i gravarna, som kan berätta om hästens sociala roll i samhället. När hästar påträffats i gravar har större vikt lagts på den mänskliga individen och artefakterna de fick med sig, men hästen är inte ett föremål och kan därför inte klumpas ihop med analysen av dessa. Utifrån denna uppsats kan man tyda en preferens för det manliga könet på hästen, men det behöver inte betyda att alla varit hingstar. / The aim of this study is to discuss the gender of the horse in a funerary context and as a wetland sacrifice. This is a comparative study based on textual source material. The theoretical concepts that will be used are gender theory, epistemology, agency and personhood, in hope to approachthe question of the gelding, the horse's third gender. The horse has had a significant role for humans, and it’s possible to interpret this in the different contexts in which skeletal remains of horses can be found. Four contexts from the Iron Age are examined in this essay, boat graves in Uppland, chamber graves on Björkö, equestrian graves on Gotland and wetland sacrifices on Öland and Gotland. It is not only the horse that is important, but also the equipment that was deposited, which can reveal the horse's social role in society. When horses are found in graves, more emphasis has been placed on the person and the artifacts they brought with them. But the horse is not an object and therefore cannot be lumped together with the analysis of these. Based on this essay, a preference for the male gender of the horse can be concluded, but this does not necessarily mean that they all have been stallions.

This bachelor thesis provides a study of two individuals from Buttle Änge, Gotland and the data of their health at the time of death. Possible profession or status of each individual has been discussed in correlation to the form of burial and then summated into a possible explanation. Individual 1, the buttle warrior, was determined a man with an age between 30-35 years and a stature of 180 centimetres. Individual 2, the armless individual, was determined a man with the age of 20-25 years and a stature of 175 centimetres. The analyse of the human skeletal material and excavation reports gave a context to how these two individuals were buried. The offerings or lack of offerings, in the grave gave an insight to the status of the burial for each individual. The Buttle Warrior gave indication on impact or change in the vertebrae which probably came from the way of movement he had in life. The lack of grave offerings in the grave of the armless individual have been discussed and formed a possible explanation that the armless individual lack skeleton of the arms because of a probable remove just before or short after burial. The two human remains origins from the Roman iron age, a period from 0 to 400 AD, both individuals was dated to a period of 0-150 AD.

In 1953, two individuals were excavated in Erik XIII’s alley, Visby, Gotland. After the excavation, the individuals did not undergo an osteological examination and were preserved for several years by the Gotland Museum. These two individuals were selected for this thesis to undergo an osteological analysis. The purpose of the essay was to identify and investigate the two individuals from Erik XIII's alley and illuminate the Viking age of Visby. A spatial analysis of Erik XIII's alley and the surrounding environment was carried out, to emphasize Visby’s Viking-age. Erik XIII's alley is in the northern part of Visby's inner city and is within walking distance of the two largest Viking-era burial grounds in Visby, Kopparsvik and Gustavsvik. Individual 1, who was judged to be a man, was approximately 182cm tall and was between 33-45 years old when he died. Individual 2 was judged to be a probable man and was between 17-25 at the time of his death and had an approximate length of 173cm. The individuals have only two common pathologies, which are osteophytes and tartar. Individual 2 had significantly fewer pathologies than individual 1, which may be a side effect of the age difference between them. In individual 1, enthesopathies were also identified, which were roughly consistent throughout the body, ligamente flava, pitting and osteoarthritis. Individual 2 showed changes from two different deficiency diseases, cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasia. The discussion is divided into three parts that emphasize the individuals, the comparison with other Viking-era individuals on Gotland and the spatial context. The individuals' pathologies are discussed, and possible interpretations of the individuals are presented. When the individuals from Erik XIII's alley are compared to other Viking-age individuals who have undergone osteological examinations, the result mainly varies. In the spatial context, possible interpretations of the graves are presented, which consist of an additional burial ground with different interpretations, as a burial ground for the king's company, or simple farm burials.

Uppsatsen analyserar och diskuterar kattbenen i materialet som grävdes ut i Västergarn, Gotland under våren 2021 och 2022. Analysen och diskussionen fokuserar på katternas roll i lokalsamhället, både fysiskt och i den lokala folktron. Materialet består av sex schakt med två identifierade husgrunder, en misstänkt smedja och en brunn med en datering på vikingatid och tidig medeltid. Materialet består av 151 ben och beräkningen visar på uppskattningsvis fyra individer. Analysen kom fram till att majoriteten av individerna var yngre än ett år gamla, med undantag från en med artros från hög ålder. En underkäke hittades med snittspår vilket i samband med åldern på individerna visar på att katterna har avlivats för pälsens skull, som har dokumenterats tidigare i både historiska och arkeologiska källor. Ett område identifieras där troligen en hel individ deponerats som husoffer för att skydda mot onda krafter. Katterna på platsen har förmodligen i livet använts som skadedjursbekämpning och magiskt skydd. / The essay analyses and discusses the cat bones in the material excavated in Västergarn, Gotland during the spring of 2021 and 2022. The analysis and discussion focus on the role of cats in local society, both physically and in local folklore. The material consists of six shafts with two identified house foundations, a suspected forge and a well with a dating from the Viking Age and the early Middle Ages. The material consists of 151 bones and the calculation shows approximately four individuals. The analysis concluded that most individuals were younger than one year old, with the exception of one with osteoarthritis from old age. A lower jaw was found with butchery marks which, in conjunction with the age of the individuals, shows that the cats have been slaughtered for their fur, which has been documented previously in both historical and archaeological sources. An area is identified where an entire individual was probably deposited as a house offering to protect against evil forces. The cats on the site were probably used in life as pest control and magical protection.