The reductive representations stemming from Western cinematic depiction of the African cultures have exacerbated the issue of Western hegemony over African countries. The first representations of Africa were of the exotic genre and failed to portray the socio-political history and culture of the indigenous people. Much of these depictions were due to years of Western colonialism, the dominant idea found in Jean-Marie Ténos film, Afrique je te plumerai. In this film, the Cameroonian filmmaker creates an avenue of viewing history through the lens of the colonized, breaking the chains of hegemony. Ténos use of revolutionary cinematic techniques forces the audience to understand Western colonization of Cameroon and of other African countries by dismantling our own preconceived ideas of that particular era in history. The ails of colonialism are portrayed in this film and these particular themes are found in the writings of the literary movement, la Négritude where we find definitions of colonialism, the effects of colonialism on the indigenous people and the root of the revolutionary spirit it engendered. Where there is colonialism, there is neocolonialism, or the continuing financial and cultural domination of a people. The subject of neocolonialism is portrayed in the second film studied in this research, Guelwaar by Ousmane Sembene. In this film, the Senegalese filmmaker brings to question the controversy of food aid in formerly-colonized countries in Senegal as well as around the world. This form of neocolonialism and other forms of foreign domination in economically-weakened countries are also invoked in the writings of the literary movement Panafricanism, which urges the cultural and economic independence of African countries. Ténos didactic message is obvious to the viewer and even shocking whereas the message of Sembene is ingeniously hidden behind a film so colorful and mesmerizing, it appeases to any audience. / Master of Arts

Este projeto tem por finalidade o estudo das representações de conflitos sociais ocorridos na formação do Estado do Senegal nas obras cinematográficas de Ousmane Sembène, da década de 60 até início de 80. Nesse período o Estado estava sob o governo de Leopold Sédar Senghor cujo direcionamento político abrangia a concepção de Socialismo Marxista-Leninista e Negritude. A mudança da literatura ao cinema para Sembène ocorre com o objetivo de alcançar as massas que eram em sua maioria analfabetas. Por isso seus filmes são feitos em wolof e francês, esse ultimo devido a exigências governamentais e interesse de maior amplitude receptiva. Ao estudarmos os conflitos sociais no Senegal do período da recente independência percebemos que as ideias-chave por trás dessa realidade são identidade nacional, solidariedade negra e pan-africanismo. Partimos da concepção que a identidade é uma construção e o uso da raça como sua legitimação enfraquece sua força, pois supor uma solidariedade apenas pelo fato de ser negro diminuí seu poder legitimador.

Este projeto tem por finalidade o estudo das representações de conflitos sociais ocorridos na formação do Estado do Senegal nas obras cinematográficas de Ousmane Sembène, da década de 60 até início de 80. Nesse período o Estado estava sob o governo de Leopold Sédar Senghor cujo direcionamento político abrangia a concepção de Socialismo Marxista-Leninista e Negritude. A mudança da literatura ao cinema para Sembène ocorre com o objetivo de alcançar as massas que eram em sua maioria analfabetas. Por isso seus filmes são feitos em wolof e francês, esse ultimo devido a exigências governamentais e interesse de maior amplitude receptiva. Ao estudarmos os conflitos sociais no Senegal do período da recente independência percebemos que as ideias-chave por trás dessa realidade são identidade nacional, solidariedade negra e pan-africanismo. Partimos da concepção que a identidade é uma construção e o uso da raça como sua legitimação enfraquece sua força, pois supor uma solidariedade apenas pelo fato de ser negro diminuí seu poder legitimador.

Text in French / Member of the union of black workers in the port of Marseille, in France, and an eyewitness to the misery of black workers in the European environment, Sembène Ousmane, in 1956, wrote, using his personal experiences, his first book entitled The Black Docker. In this novel, he describes the sufferings of the working class, the struggle between colonisers and colonised. In 1960, he uses as a pretext the strike of the Senegalese railway workers in 1937 to write a book entitled God's Bits of Wood. In this story where two forces clashed, on one hand, the colonised struggling against the colonial system and want, at all costs, to improve their living conditions, and on the other hand, the colonisers that are in support of their colonialist ideals and refuse the changes, the author tells the epic story of strikers in Senegal and their relentless struggles against the colonisers to change their living conditions for better. In 1973, an eyewitness of the daily realities of his native country, Senegal, after gaining national sovereignty, Sembène Ousmane wrote and published a book entitled Xala. In this book, he describes the evils of neo-colonialism and criticises the new African middle class, born after independence. After reading these novels, one notes that Sembène Ousmane, a defender of freedom, denounces the injustices done to the blacks, both in the colonial era as well as in the post colonial period. This is why from a book to another, he continues tirelessly his struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism, evoking the sufferings and tragedies endured by the Africans. It occurs constantly in his imaginary creations, a theme, or better still a dialectical; commitment and militancy. What does he mean by « commitment » and « militancy » ? How do these two concepts manifest themselves in the works of the Senegalese writer? What strategy does he propose to the oppressed in the struggle against the oppressors? What means has he put at the disposal of the disinherited struggling to break the yoke of oppression and exploitation in order to achieve freedom and equality? / Membre du syndicat des travailleurs noirs, au port de Marseille, en France, et témoin oculaire de la misère vécue par les ouvriers noirs dans ce milieu européen, Sembène Ousmane, en 1956, écrit, en se servant de ses expériences personnelles, son premier ouvrage intitulé Le Docker noir. Dans ce roman, il décrit la souffrance de la classe ouvrière, la lutte entre colonisateurs et colonisés. En 1960, il se sert d’un prétexte, la grève des ouvriers sénégalais en 1937, pour écrire un ouvrage intitulé Les Bouts de bois de Dieu. Dans ce récit, où s’affrontent deux forces, d’une part les colonisés qui luttent contre le système colonial et veulent, à tout prix, l’amélioration de leurs conditions de vie, et d’autre part, les colonisateurs qui soutiennent les idéaux colonialistes et refusent le changement, l’auteur relate l’histoire épique des grévistes au Sénégal, et la lutte implacable qu’ils mènent contre les colonisateurs pour le changement de leurs conditions de vie. En 1973, témoin oculaire des réalités quotidiennes de son pays natal, le Sénégal, après son accession à la souveraineté nationale, Sembène Ousmane écrit et publie, un ouvrage intitulé Xala. Dans ce livre, il décrit les méfaits du néocolonialisme et critique la nouvelle classe bourgeoise africaine, née après l’indépendance. Après lecture des trois romans, on constate que Sembène Ousmane, défenseur de la liberté, dénonce les injustices faites aux Noirs, aussi bien à l’époque coloniale qu’à la période postcoloniale. C’est pourquoi, d’un ouvrage à l’autre, il continue, inlassablement, sa lutte contre le colonialisme et le néocolonialisme, en évoquant les souffrances et les drames endurés par les Africains. Il revient, constamment, dans ses créations imaginaires, à une thématique, ou mieux une dialectique, l’engagement et le militantisme. Qu’entend-il par « engagement » et « militantisme »? Comment ces deux lexèmes se manifestent-ils dans les écrits de cet écrivain sénégalais? Quelles stratégies propose-t-il aux opprimés dans la lutte qui les oppose aux oppresseurs? Quels moyens met-il a la disposition des déshérités en lutte pour briser le joug de l’oppression et celui de l’exploitation afin d’obtenir la liberté et l’égalité? / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (French)

Text in French / Member of the union of black workers in the port of Marseille, in France, and an eyewitness to the misery of black workers in the European environment, Sembène Ousmane, in 1956, wrote, using his personal experiences, his first book entitled The Black Docker. In this novel, he describes the sufferings of the working class, the struggle between colonisers and colonised. In 1960, he uses as a pretext the strike of the Senegalese railway workers in 1937 to write a book entitled God's Bits of Wood. In this story where two forces clashed, on one hand, the colonised struggling against the colonial system and want, at all costs, to improve their living conditions, and on the other hand, the colonisers that are in support of their colonialist ideals and refuse the changes, the author tells the epic story of strikers in Senegal and their relentless struggles against the colonisers to change their living conditions for better. In 1973, an eyewitness of the daily realities of his native country, Senegal, after gaining national sovereignty, Sembène Ousmane wrote and published a book entitled Xala. In this book, he describes the evils of neo-colonialism and criticises the new African middle class, born after independence. After reading these novels, one notes that Sembène Ousmane, a defender of freedom, denounces the injustices done to the blacks, both in the colonial era as well as in the post colonial period. This is why from a book to another, he continues tirelessly his struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism, evoking the sufferings and tragedies endured by the Africans. It occurs constantly in his imaginary creations, a theme, or better still a dialectical; commitment and militancy. What does he mean by « commitment » and « militancy » ? How do these two concepts manifest themselves in the works of the Senegalese writer? What strategy does he propose to the oppressed in the struggle against the oppressors? What means has he put at the disposal of the disinherited struggling to break the yoke of oppression and exploitation in order to achieve freedom and equality? / Membre du syndicat des travailleurs noirs, au port de Marseille, en France, et témoin oculaire de la misère vécue par les ouvriers noirs dans ce milieu européen, Sembène Ousmane, en 1956, écrit, en se servant de ses expériences personnelles, son premier ouvrage intitulé Le Docker noir. Dans ce roman, il décrit la souffrance de la classe ouvrière, la lutte entre colonisateurs et colonisés. En 1960, il se sert d’un prétexte, la grève des ouvriers sénégalais en 1937, pour écrire un ouvrage intitulé Les Bouts de bois de Dieu. Dans ce récit, où s’affrontent deux forces, d’une part les colonisés qui luttent contre le système colonial et veulent, à tout prix, l’amélioration de leurs conditions de vie, et d’autre part, les colonisateurs qui soutiennent les idéaux colonialistes et refusent le changement, l’auteur relate l’histoire épique des grévistes au Sénégal, et la lutte implacable qu’ils mènent contre les colonisateurs pour le changement de leurs conditions de vie. En 1973, témoin oculaire des réalités quotidiennes de son pays natal, le Sénégal, après son accession à la souveraineté nationale, Sembène Ousmane écrit et publie, un ouvrage intitulé Xala. Dans ce livre, il décrit les méfaits du néocolonialisme et critique la nouvelle classe bourgeoise africaine, née après l’indépendance. Après lecture des trois romans, on constate que Sembène Ousmane, défenseur de la liberté, dénonce les injustices faites aux Noirs, aussi bien à l’époque coloniale qu’à la période postcoloniale. C’est pourquoi, d’un ouvrage à l’autre, il continue, inlassablement, sa lutte contre le colonialisme et le néocolonialisme, en évoquant les souffrances et les drames endurés par les Africains. Il revient, constamment, dans ses créations imaginaires, à une thématique, ou mieux une dialectique, l’engagement et le militantisme. Qu’entend-il par « engagement » et « militantisme »? Comment ces deux lexèmes se manifestent-ils dans les écrits de cet écrivain sénégalais? Quelles stratégies propose-t-il aux opprimés dans la lutte qui les oppose aux oppresseurs? Quels moyens met-il a la disposition des déshérités en lutte pour briser le joug de l’oppression et celui de l’exploitation afin d’obtenir la liberté et l’égalité? / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (French)

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2006. / Full text release at OhioLINK's ETD Center delayed at author's request

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2005. / Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center; full text release delayed at author's request until 2006 Jun 1

[pt] O colonialismo europeu teve um grande impacto nas sociedades africanas e é sentido até os dias de hoje. Mesmo com as lutas de independência no pós Segunda Guerra Mundial, o peso do domínio colonial se faz presente, especialmente no campo da cultura. A descolonização das mentes foi um desafio assumido pelos intelectuais engajados nas lutas de independência, principalmente aqueles de origem africana. O cinema se tornou uma importante ferramenta nesse processo, surgindo pela primeira vez a proposta de um Cinema Africano, no âmbito da antiga África Ocidental Francesa durante a década de 1960. Este trabalho analisa a produção cinematográfica do senegalês Ousmane Sembène durante o período supracitado. Sua proposta de cinema e sua militância influenciaram muitos artistas e intelectuais africanos, sua busca por uma estética que rejeitasse os padrões europeus e de Hollywood é considerada por muitos a fundação do que se costuma chamar de Cinema Africano. Esta dissertação tem como objetivo contribuir para a análise dos elementos que compõe essa proposta estética e o debate sobre a possibilidade de um Cinema Africano. Além disto, o trabalho se propõe ainda a se debruçar sobre a trajetória de vida de Sembène, seu processo de formação intelectual e seu exílio numa tentativa de estabelecer a conexão entre o artista formado e suas origens, através de sua biografia e suas entrevistas, investigando dessa maneira as relações sociais que deram origem ao cineasta. / [en] European colonialism had a great impact on African societies and is felt to this day. Even with the struggles for independence in the post World War II, the weight of colonial rule is present, especially in the field of culture. The decolonization of the minds was a challenge taken up by intellectuals engaged in the process of decolonization, especially those of African origin. The cinema has become an important tool in this process, appearing for the first time a proposed African Cinema, under the former French West Africa during the 1960s. This paper analyzes the cinematic of the senegalese Ousmane Sembène during the stated period. His proposal for an african cinema and his activism influenced many African artists and intellectuals, his quest for an aesthetic that rejected the European and Hollywood standards is considered by many the foundation of what is called African Cinema. This dissertation aims to contribute to the analysis of aesthetic elements that make up this proposal and the debate about the possibility of an African Cinema. In addition, the study aims to further look into the life trajectory of Sembène, the process of intellectual formation and his exile in an attempt to establish the connection between the artist and his origins, through his biography and his interviews, investigating this way the social relations that gave rise to the filmmaker.

Thesis--University of Helsinki, 1994. / English summary. Includes bibliographical references (p. [165]-172).

Summaries in French and English / Text in French / Les romans analyses - Une si longue lettre et Un chant ecarlate de Mariama Ba, O pays, mon beau peuple! by d'Ousmane Sembene et Agar d' Albert Memmi - proposent tous une histoire se deroulant en Afrique et ayant pour theme le mariage mixte et/ou polygame, theme particulierement riche comme foyer d'observation socioculturelle et interculturelle des milieux evoques. Le chapitre 1 cerne le theme du mariage et ses diverses configurations mixtes et polygames dans les quatre roamns. Sont examines dans les chapitres suivants: les rapports familiaux et sociaux tels qu'ils sont vecus par les couples protagonistes; la polygamie, centrale aux deux romans de Ba et omnipresente dans celui de Sembene; les religions des societes concernees, telles qu' ell es affectent les couples en jeu; les images de la femme - et surtout de la femme africaine - qui ressortent des situations conjugates developpees par les auteurs; l'eventuelle influence du sexe de l'auteur sur la representation de la femme. / The novels analysed - Une si longue lettre and Un chant ecarlate by Mariama Ba, O pays, mon beau peuple! by Ousmane Sembene and Agar by Albert Memmi - all tell stories set in Africa and share the theme of mixed and/or polygamous marriage, a particularly fertile theme through which to focus a socio-cultural and intercultural examination of the social environments portrayed. Chapter 1 identifies the theme of marriage and the various mixed/polygamous configurations it assumes in the four novels. The succeeding chapters examine: family and social relationships as experienced by the protagonists; polygamy, central to both novels by Ba and omnipresent in Sembene's novel; the religions of the societies portrayed, insofar as they affect the couples concerned; the images of woman - and particularly the Afiican woman - emerging from the marital situations developed by the authors and, finally, the possible influence of authorial gender on the presentation of woman. / Classics and Modern Euorpean Languages / M.A. (French)