Ένα από τα σπουδαιότερα προβλήµατα της σύγχρονης αεροδυναµικής και διαστηµικής τεχνολογίας, αν όχι το σπουδαιότερο, είναι αυτό του ελέγχου (control) του οριακού στρώµατος (boundary layer) που αναπτύσσεται (περιβάλλει) ένα στερεό σώµα που κινείται µέσα σ’ ένα ρευστό. Παρ’ όλο που στην αρχή του αιώνα που διανύουµε συµπληρώνονται εκατό περίπου χρόνια από την διατύπωση της έννοιας του οριακού στρώµατος από τον L. Prandtl (1904), η έρευνα στο πρόβληµα αυτό εξακολουθεί να παραµένει επιτακτική και αναγκαία όσο και κατά τα πρώτα χρόνια της ανάπτυξης της αεροπορικής και διαστηµικής τεχνολογίας. Με τον όρο έλεγχο του οριακού στρώµατος εννοούµε την ανάπτυξη µεθόδων - τεχνικών η εφαρµογή των οποίων πάνω στην ροή θα της µεταβάλλει την δοµή και θα της προσδώσει επιθυµητά χαρακτηριστικά. Από τις αρχές του εικοστού αιώνα (1904) ο Prandtl περιέγραψε αρκετές πειραµατικές διατάξεις µέσω των οποίων πραγµατοποιούσε έλεγχο του οριακού στρώµατος. Με την ανάπτυξη της αεροπορικής τεχνολογίας κατά και µετά τον ∆εύτερο Παγκόσµιο Πόλεµο, και αργότερα της διαστηµικής, το πρόβληµα του ελέγχου του οριακού στρώµατος απέκτησε τεράστια σηµασία, ειδικά για την αποφυγή του διαχωρισµού ή της αποκόλλησης (separation) αυτού, της ελάττωσης της αντίστασης (drag) και την αύξηση της άντωσης (lift). Μεταξύ των σπουδαιότερων και πιο αποτελεσµατικών µεθόδων – τεχνικών που αναπτύχθηκαν για τον σκοπό αυτό µπορεί να αναφερθούν: 1. Η κίνηση του στερεού τοιχώµατος (motion of the solid wall) 2. Η επιτάχυνση του οριακού στρώµατος (blowing) 3. Η απορρόφηση (suction) 4. Η έγχυση ίδιου ή διαφορετικού ρευστού (injection, binary boundary layers) 5. Πρόληψη της µετάπτωσης της ροής από στρωτή σε τυρβώδη µε διαµόρφωση κατάλληλων σχηµάτων των στερεών τοιχωµάτων (laminar airfoils) 6. Ψύξη των τοιχωµάτων (cooling) Η προσπάθεια υπολογισµού του σηµείου αποκόλλησης και των συνθηκών που οδηγούν σ’ αυτήν οδήγησε στην επινόηση διαφόρων µεθόδων για την τεχνική της παρεµπόδιση. Σε µια ροή η αποκόλληση µπορεί να εµποδιστεί ή να καθυστερήσει, όπως αναφέρθηκε, µε την εφαρµογή ενεργητικών ή παθητικών µεθόδων ελέγχου, όπως απορρόφηση, έγχυση, παθητικές διατάξεις, ψύξη ή θέρµανση, κλπ. Τέτοιες τεχνικές ελέγχου χρησιµοποιούνται στις άκρες των πτερύγων των αεροσκαφών της Boeing (γεννήτριες στροβίλων), στα αεροσκάφη παλαιότερης γενιάς στις πίσω επιφάνειες καµπυλότητας (flaps) ή στην οδηγούσα ακµή της πτέρυγας στις νεώτερες γενιές, µε τις εµπρόσθιες επιφάνειες καµπυλότητας (slats). Η πιο αποδεκτή τεχνική ελέγχου του οριακού στρώµατος είναι η τεχνική της έγχυσης/απορρόφησης. Σαν τεχνική ελέγχου χρησιµοποιείται από παλιά. Κατά την δεκαετία του ’60 δοκιµαστικές πτήσεις του πειραµατικού αεροσκάφους X-21 έδειξαν ότι η στρωτή ροή διατηρείται πάνω από την πτέρυγα µε την χρήση απορρόφησης µέσα από πολλές σχισµές πάνω σ’ αυτήν. Πρόσφατες δοκιµαστικές πτήσεις ενός µετασκευασµένου αεροσκάφους F-16XL, που χρησιµοποιεί την τεχνική της απορρόφησης πάνω σε ειδικές διατάξεις LERX (LEading Root eXtensions), έδειξαν διατήρηση της στρωτής ροής και µείωση της αντίστασης. Πρόσφατα πειράµατα εφαρµογής απορρόφησης κατά µήκος της οδηγούσας ακµής πτέρυγας έδειξαν ότι, κάτω από κατάλληλες συνθήκες, καθυστερεί η “µόλυνση” (contamination) της ακµής που οφείλεται στις γειτονικές µ’ αυτήν δοµές (κινητήρας, άτρακτος, λοιπές αεροδυναµικές διατάξεις) που συµµετέχουν στην ροή. Πολλοί είναι αυτοί που έχουν προτείνει διάφορες διατάξεις έγχυσης/απορρόφησης. Μεταξύ αυτών συγκαταλέγεται η υβριδική επιφάνεια απορρόφησης (hybrid suction surface) που αποτελείται από µια συστοιχία σχισµών κοντά η µια στην άλλη προς την διεύθυνση της µέσης ροής και η επιλεκτική απορρόφηση (selective suction), στην οποία µικρής έντασης απορρόφηση εφαρµόζεται σε σχισµές τοποθετηµένες σε κατάλληλες θέσεις. Τέλος, και η τοπική απορρόφηση (localized suction) που εφαρµόζεται σ’ ένα µικρό τµήµα της επιφάνειας. Επίσης, µε την ανάπτυξη της µαγνητοϋδροδυναµικής (MHD), της επιστήµης δηλαδή που µελετά τα ροϊκά φαινόµενα όταν το ηλεκτρικά αγώγιµο ρευστό υπόκειται στην επίδραση ενός ηλεκτρικού ή και µαγνητικού πεδίου, προστέθηκε στα µέσα ελέγχου του οριακού στρώµατος ένα επιπλέον. Από την δεκαετία του ’60 το µαγνητικό πεδίο χρησιµοποιείται επίσης σαν τεχνική ελέγχου στην σύγχρονη αεροδυναµική, λόγω της ικανότητας του να σταθεροποιεί την ροή και να εµποδίζει την µετάπτωση της. Χρησιµοποιήθηκε σαν τεχνική ελέγχου στα διαστηµικά οχήµατα που επανέρχονται στην ατµόσφαιρα από το διάστηµα και σε αεροσκάφη που πετούν σε µεγάλα ύψη µε µεγάλες ταχύτητες. Βρίσκει όµως εφαρµογές και στις MHD ροές µέσα σε σήραγγες όπου κι εκεί οι ροές είναι συµπιεστές (γεννήτριες πλάσµατος, MHD επιταχυντές, συσκευές πυρηνικής σύντηξης). Εφαρµογές της MHD υπάρχουν επίσης στα αέρια των νεφελωµάτων που συνθέτουν τα άστρα, στην κίνηση του υδρογόνου του Ήλιου ή ακόµα και στον ηλιακό άνεµο που µεταφέρει τα ιονισµένα σωµατίδια στην επιφάνεια της Γης. Η παρούσα διατριβή αναφέρεται στην µελέτη της χρονοανεξάρτητης διδιάστατης µαγνητοϋδροδυναµικής (MHD) συµπιεστής ροής οριακού στρώµατος πάνω από επίπεδη επιφάνεια µε αντίξοη βαθµίδα πίεσης και µεταφορά θερµότητας και µάζας. Το ερευνητικό µέρος της εργασίας αυτής µπορεί να χωριστεί σε δύο κύρια µέρη (Κεφάλαια ΙΙ και ΙΙΙ). Στο πρώτο µέρος (Κεφάλαιο ΙΙ) γίνεται µελέτη της MHD συµπιεστής ροής στρωτού οριακού στρώµατος µε αντίξοη βαθµίδα πίεσης και µεταφορά θερµότητας και µάζας πάνω από επίπεδη πλάκα. Στο δεύτερο µέρος (Κεφάλαιο ΙΙΙ) µελετάται η MHD συµπιεστή ροή τυρβώδους οριακού στρώµατος µε αντίξοη βαθµίδα πίεσης και µεταφορά θερµότητας και µάζας πάνω από επίπεδη πλάκα. Αρχικά, σε ένα εισαγωγικό Κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Ι), παρουσιάζονται, πολύ περιληπτικά, οι βασικές έννοιες που είναι απαραίτητες για την κατανόηση της διατριβής καθώς και οι θεµελιώδεις εξισώσεις της µαγνητοϋδροδυναµικής που διέπουν την κίνηση ηλεκτρικά αγώγιµου ρευστού που κινείται υπό την επίδραση µαγνητικού πεδίου. Στο πρώτο µέρος της διατριβής (Κεφάλαιο ΙΙ), όπως αναφέρθηκε, µελετάται αριθµητικά η MHD συµπιεστή ροή στρωτού οριακού στρώµατος µε αντίξοη βαθµίδα πίεσης και µεταφορά θερµότητας και µάζας. Το ρευστό (αέρας) θεωρείται ιδανικό, νευτώνειο, ηλεκτρικά αγώγιµο και το µαγνητικό πεδίο είναι σταθερό και κάθετα εφαρµοζόµενο ως προς την πλάκα και συνεπώς ως προς την κατεύθυνση της ροής. Η αντίξοη βαθµίδα πίεσης, που επιβάλλεται στην ροή, γνωστή ως ροή τύπου Howarth, προκύπτει από µια γραµµικά ελαττούµενη ταχύτητα. Το σύστηµα των µερικών διαφορικών εξισώσεων που περιγράφουν το πρόβληµα έχει αδιαστατοποιηθεί µε τον µετασχηµατισµό των Falkner-Skan, για συµπιεστή ροή, και επιλύεται αριθµητικά χρησιµοποιώντας την µέθοδο του Keller. ix Τα αποτελέσµατα του Κεφαλαίου αυτού αναφέρονται σε τρία είδη ροής: (i) αδιαβατική ροή ρευστού πάνω από την πλάκα, (ii) σε ροή πάνω από θερµαινόµενη πλάκα και (iii) σε ροή πάνω από ψυχόµενη πλάκα. Γίνονται αριθµητικοί υπολογισµοί για κάθε µια από τις παραπάνω περιπτώσεις εφαρµόζοντας συνεχή ή τοπική έγχυση/απορρόφηση, για διάφορες τιµές της έντασης του µαγνητικού πεδίου και για διάφορες τιµές αριθµού Mach του ελεύθερου ρεύµατος πάνω από την επίπεδη επιφάνεια. Εξετάζεται η επίδραση των ανωτέρω µεγεθών σε αυτόν τον τύπο της ροής. Αναλυτικότερα, δείχθηκε µετά τους αριθµητικούς υπολογισµούς, ότι η τεχνική της απορρόφησης διατηρεί την ροή για περισσότερο διάστηµα πάνω από την πλάκα µετατοπίζοντας το σηµείο αποκόλλησης προς το χείλος εκφυγής. Τα αντίθετα αποτελέσµατα δίνει η εφαρµογή έγχυσης. Το µαγνητικό πεδίο που εφαρµόζεται στην πλάκα βοηθά την ροή και την διατηρεί στρωτή πάνω από αυτήν για µεγαλύτερο διάστηµα κατά µήκος της πλάκας. Τα αποτελέσµατα αυτά επιβεβαιώθηκαν για τις τρεις περιπτώσεις της στρωτής ροής (αδιαβατική ροή, θερµαινόµενη και ψυχόµενη πλάκα) και για διάφορους αριθµούς Mach. Στο δεύτερο µέρος (Κεφάλαιο ΙΙΙ) µελετάται αριθµητικά η MHD συµπιεστή ροή τυρβώδους οριακού στρώµατος µε αντίξοη βαθµίδα πίεσης και µεταφορά θερµότητας και µάζας. Για το ρευστό (αέρας) και το µαγνητικό πεδίο ακολουθούνται οι ίδιες παραδοχές µε την περίπτωση της στρωτής ροής. Οι εξισώσεις που περιγράφουν το πρόβληµα προκύπτουν από τις εξισώσεις που έχει προτείνει ο Reynolds για την τυρβώδη ροή οριακού στρώµατος, κατάλληλα τροποποιηµένες για την περίπτωση MHD ροής. Οι εξισώσεις αυτές αδιαστατοποιούνται µε τον µετασχηµατισµό των Falkner-Skan για συµπιεστή ροή και επιλύονται µε την ίδια µέθοδο µε την στρωτή MHD ροή (µέθοδος Keller). Για το τυρβώδες κινηµατικό ιξώδες χρησιµοποιούνται δύο διαφορετικά αλγεβρικά µοντέλα τύρβης, αυτά των Cebeci-Smith και Baldwin-Lomax. Τα µοντέλα αυτά τροποποιήθηκαν ώστε να περιγράφουν το τυρβώδες κινηµατικό ιξώδες και στην περίπτωση της έγχυσης/απορρόφησης. Για τον τυρβώδη αριθµό Prandtl χρησιµοποιήθηκε µια τροποποίηση του µοντέλου των Kays και Crawford. Αριθµητικοί υπολογισµοί έγιναν για τον αέρα, για την περίπτωση που η ροή πάνω από την οριακή επιφάνεια ήταν αδιαβατική ή η επιφάνεια θερµαινόταν ή ψυχόταν. Για κάθε µια από τις παραπάνω περιπτώσεις εξετάζεται η επίδραση του µαγνητικού πεδίου, της τοπικής ή συνεχούς έγχυσης/απορρόφησης και του αριθµού Mach του ελευθέρου ρεύµατος πάνω στο τυρβώδες οριακό στρώµα. Μετά τους αριθµητικούς υπολογισµούς, τα συµπεράσµατα που προκύπτουν για την τυρβώδη ροή είναι παρόµοια µε την στρωτή. Η τεχνική της απορρόφησης βοηθάει στην διατήρηση του τυρβώδους οριακού στρώµατος πάνω από την πλάκα σε αντίθεση µε την έγχυση. Ο συνδυασµός αρχικά έγχυσης και έπειτα απορρόφησης βοηθά στην διατήρηση της ροής για µεγαλύτερο διάστηµα πάνω από την πλάκα, δηλαδή στην µετατόπιση του σηµείου αποκόλλησης προς το χείλος εκφυγής ελαττώνοντας ταυτόχρονα την συνολική αντίσταση σε αυτήν. Αυτό το αποτέλεσµα ισχύει και στην στρωτή ροή. Το µαγνητικό πεδίο βοηθάει την τυρβώδη ροή µετατοπίζοντας το σηµείο αποκόλλησης προς το χείλος εκφυγής. Το αποτέλεσµα αυτό είναι λιγότερο έντονο στην τυρβώδη ροή από ότι στην στρωτή. Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσµατα παρουσιάζονται για τις τρεις περιπτώσεις της τυρβώδης ροής (αδιαβατική ροή, θερµαινόµενη και ψυχόµενη πλάκα), για διάφορους αριθµούς Mach () και για τα δύο µοντέλα τύρβης (C-S και B-L). Στο τέλος του Κεφαλαίου γίνεται σύγκριση των δύο τύπων ροών, στρωτής και τυρβώδους. Λόγω της απουσίας ερευνητικών αποτελεσµάτων πάνω στο συγκεκριµένο αυτό πρόβληµα, τα παραπάνω αποτελέσµατα εκτιµάται ότι είναι πολύ ενδιαφέροντα για την περιγραφή του µηχανισµού ελέγχου του στρωτού και τυρβώδους οριακού στρώµατος για συµπιεστές ροές. / In this thesis the steady two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic (MHD), compressible boundary layer flow, over a flat plate is numerically studied. The flow is subjected to an adverse pressure gradient, due to a linearly retarded velocity, that is known as Howarth’s flow. The plate is electrically non-conducting and it is subjected to a suction/injection velocity, continuous or localized, normal to it. The case of an impermeable plate is also studied. The plate is parallel to the free stream of a heat-conducting perfect gas (air) flowing with velocity u∞ along the plate. The flow field is subjected to the action of a constant magnetic field which acts normal to the plate. The fluid (air) is considered Newtonian, compressible and electrically conducting. The fundamental equations of MHD flow are presented in Chapter I as well as the characteristic quantities of the boundary layer which are used in this study. The laminar flow is studied in Chapter II where as the turbulent flow is studied in Chapter III. For both cases (laminar and turbulent) the partial differential equations and their boundary conditions, describing the problem under consideration, are transformed using the compressible Falkner-Skan transformation and the numerical solution of the problem is obtained by using a modification of the well known Keller’s box method. The obtained numerical results for the velocity and temperature field, as well as for the associated boundary layer parameters, are shown in figures for different free-stream Mach numbers M∞ and for the case (i) of an adiabatic flow (0wS′=), (ii) heating of the wall () and (iii) cooling of the wall (1wS>1wS<), followed by an extensive discussion. For turbulent flow, in Chapter III, the Reynolds-averaged boundary layer equations are used. Two different turbulent models, namely the model of Cebeci-Smith and Baldwin-Lomax, are used to represent eddy kinematic viscosity and eddy diffusivity of heat. These models are the most simple with acceptable generality and their accuracy has been explored for a wide range of flows for which there are experimental data. It has also been found that they give results sufficiently accurate for most engineering problems. For the turbulent Prandtl number model a modification of the extended Kays and Crawford’s model is also used. In the case of laminar flow (Chapter II) the numerical calculations showed that the application of suction moves separation point downstream, whereas injection moves the separation point towards the leading edge of the plate. The presence of the magnetic field always increases frictional drag on the wall but moves the separation point downstream for every value of free-stream Mach number. Τhis displacement is greater for small values of M∞. The combined influence of the magnetic field, localized injection and localized suction moves separation point downstream reducing frictional drag. These results confirmed for the three cases (adiabatic flow, heating of the wall, cooling of the wall) of the laminar flow and for various free-stream Mach numbers. Since most flows, which occur in practical applications, are turbulent the results in this case (Chapter III) are more important and are similar with those in laminar flow. 162 Precisely, application of suction moves separation point downstream but injection moves separation point towards the leading edge of the plate reducing drag. Application of localized injection and localized suction moves the separation point downstream reducing total drag. The presence of the magnetic field moves separation point downstream increasing frictional drag. The combined influence of magnetic field, localized injection and localized suction moves separation point further downstream as regards the other cases. These results confirmed for the three cases (adiabatic flow, heating of the wall, cooling of the wall) of turbulent flow, for various free-stream numbers and for two turbulent models (C-S and B-L). It is hoped that, in the absence of detailed investigations of this problem, the obtained results, are very interesting and give a clearer insight into the mechanism of controlling a laminar or turbulent boundary layer compressible flow.

This thesis is an experimental study of turbulent flows over smooth and rough walls in a channel that consists of an upstream parallel section to produce a fully developed channel flow and a diverging section to produce an adverse pressure gradient (APG) flow. The roughness elements used were two-dimensional square ribs of nominal height k = 3 mm. The ribs were secured to the lower wall of the channel and spaced to produce the following three pitches: 2k, 4k and 8k, corresponding to d-type, intermediate and k-type rough walls, respectively. For each rough wall type, the ribs were inclined at 90°, 45° and 30° to the approach flow. The velocity measurements were performed using a particle image velocimetry technique. The results showed that rib roughness enhanced the drag characteristics, and the degree of enhancement increased with increasing pitch. The level of turbulence production and Reynolds stresses were significantly increased by roughness beyond the roughness sublayer. It was observed that the population, sizes and the level of organization of hairpin vortices varied with roughness and more intense quadrant events were found over the smooth wall than the rough walls. APG reinforced wall roughness in augmenting the equivalent sand grain roughness height, turbulence production and Reynolds stresses. APG also reduced the sizes of the hairpin packets but strengthened the quadrant events in comparison to the results obtained in the parallel section. The secondary flow induced by inclined ribs significantly altered the distributions of the flow characteristics across the span of the channel. Generally, the mean flow was less uniform close to the trailing edge of the ribs compared to the flows at the mid-span and close to the leading edge of the ribs. The Reynolds stresses and hairpin packets were distinctly larger close to the trailing edge of the ribs. Rib inclination also decreased the drag characteristics and significantly modified the distributions of the Reynolds stresses and quadrant events. In the parallel section, the physical sizes of the hairpin packets were larger over 45° ribs whereas in the diverging section, the sizes were larger over perpendicular ribs.

This thesis is an experimental study of turbulent flows over smooth and rough walls in a channel that consists of an upstream parallel section to produce a fully developed channel flow and a diverging section to produce an adverse pressure gradient (APG) flow. The roughness elements used were two-dimensional square ribs of nominal height k = 3 mm. The ribs were secured to the lower wall of the channel and spaced to produce the following three pitches: 2k, 4k and 8k, corresponding to d-type, intermediate and k-type rough walls, respectively. For each rough wall type, the ribs were inclined at 90°, 45° and 30° to the approach flow. The velocity measurements were performed using a particle image velocimetry technique. The results showed that rib roughness enhanced the drag characteristics, and the degree of enhancement increased with increasing pitch. The level of turbulence production and Reynolds stresses were significantly increased by roughness beyond the roughness sublayer. It was observed that the population, sizes and the level of organization of hairpin vortices varied with roughness and more intense quadrant events were found over the smooth wall than the rough walls. APG reinforced wall roughness in augmenting the equivalent sand grain roughness height, turbulence production and Reynolds stresses. APG also reduced the sizes of the hairpin packets but strengthened the quadrant events in comparison to the results obtained in the parallel section. The secondary flow induced by inclined ribs significantly altered the distributions of the flow characteristics across the span of the channel. Generally, the mean flow was less uniform close to the trailing edge of the ribs compared to the flows at the mid-span and close to the leading edge of the ribs. The Reynolds stresses and hairpin packets were distinctly larger close to the trailing edge of the ribs. Rib inclination also decreased the drag characteristics and significantly modified the distributions of the Reynolds stresses and quadrant events. In the parallel section, the physical sizes of the hairpin packets were larger over 45° ribs whereas in the diverging section, the sizes were larger over perpendicular ribs.

The object of the present work is to experimentally study the case of a turbulent boundary layer subjected to an Adverse Pressure Gradient (APG) with separation and reattachment. The effect of unsteadiness on turbulent boundary layer separation by means two different methods were explored viz. the effect of local forcing by acoustic waves and effect of wakes on separation bubble. The experiments were conducted in a low speed open circuit blower type wind tunnel. The turbulent separation bubble was created on the test plate by a contoured ceiling which created the adverse pressure gradient. The velocities were measured using single element hot wire and X-wire. Limited studies on quasi shear stress were also conducted using surface mounted hot film probes. Static pressure was measured using a projection manometer. Boundary layer is tripped near the leading edge of the flat plate to ensure a turbulent boundary layer. Surface pressure distribution and flow visualization were conducted as part of diagnostics. In the case of laminar separation bubble, lot of investigations have been done on the effect of unsteady wake and the most important conclusion was that the wake induces `bypass' transition to turbulence and since the turbulent boundary layer is more resistant to separation, it remains attached. In the case of turbulent separation bubble, laminar-turbulent transition is not relevant and if the bubble is suppressed, it should be by some other mechanism. This is what we seek to unravel in this study. A closer look at the mean velocity profiles reveal the occurrence of inflection point before separation as in the case of laminar separation bubble and the peak values of turbulence intensities correspond to the location of point of inflection. Turbulent separation correlations proposed by various investigators were compared with the present results and are found to be in good agreement. Surface flow visualization pictures are used to get qualitative information. The wall forcing on the separation bubble was done using a speaker which blows a small amount of air when the diaphragm moves up and sucks in when the diaphragm moves down. The blowing effect seems to be more effective in suppressing the separation compared to suction. The interaction with wake is studied using an unsteady bar which is moving up and down. The inflection point in the mean velocity distribution seems to move closer to the wall with the impingement o the wake. Also the turbulence intensities have increased and seem to move closer to the wall. The displacement and momentum thickness have increased and the shape factor has decreased which indicates suppression of the bubble. The quasi shear stress in the separated region also increased which indicates suppression of separation. While the oncoming unsteady wake might be a parcel of fluid with defect velocity when seen in isolation, in comparison to the velocity defect in the separation bubble, it is a region of velocity excess. As a result, one can expect the impingement of the unsteady wake on the TSB to transport momentum thereby contributing to separation reduction. But the mechanism of separation is different from laminar separation bubble affected by wakes. The suppression in the case of turbulent separation bubble is partly due to the entrainment of turbulence and partly due to the kinematic impact of the wake on the bubble.

This thesis explores the effects of favourable pressure gradient on the structure of turbulent boundary layers (TBL). In this context, the structure of three types of boundary layers namely a zero-pressure-gradient boundary layer, equilibrium boundary layers under favourable pressure gradient and relaminarising boundary layers is investigated mostly from the point of view of large-scale dynamics. This covers a whole range of flows on the so-called Reynolds number - pressure gradient diagram - from turbulent zero pressure gradient flows to relaminarising flows at relatively low Reynolds numbers. The study of turbulent and relaminarising boundary layers is carried out primarily using direct numerical analyses and some limited experiments in this thesis. The direct numerical simulations (DNS) of a zero-pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layer (ZPG TBL) is validated against the experimental and DNS data available in the literature. Furthermore, the important question of time-averaged signature of a large scale vortex structure and its relation with the two-point correlations in the context of ZPG TBL is addressed. In this context, a synthetic flow consisting of hairpin vortex structures is generated. The two-point correlations in the synthetic TBL and a real TBL are found to be qualitatively similar. This shows that the vortex structure leaves a time-averaged footprint in the form of correlations of velocity and vorticity. A study of two-point correlations in a real TBL shows that the structure angle deduced from two-point correlations varies with wall-normal location. The structure angle is small near the wall and increases away from the wall in agreement with the previous studies. The small angle close to the wall signifies the presence of streamwise structure. Away from the wall, this streamwise coherence is lost and the correlation contours become more isotropic. The presence of the wall and the mean shear affects smaller scales making them anisotropic close to the wall. Towards the edge of the boundary layer, smaller scales tend to become isotropic leading to -5/3 law in the energy spectrum. Further, a relation between a passive scalar in a flow and vorticity is explored. It is found that the scalar product of vorticity and scalar gradient is conserved in a non-diffusive situation. This assertion is demonstrated under various flow conditions. Despite the differences in Schmidt numbers, the structures observed in the outer layer are similar in both numerical and experimental flow visualisations. Further, the equilibrium turbulent boundary layers under favourable pressure gradient are studied. The numerical simulations of equilibrium sink flow TBL are validated against the experimental results of Dixit (2010). A study of two-point correlations reveals that the near-wall structure angle decreases with a favourable pressure gradient in sink flow TBLs. In the outer region, the loss of streamwise coherence occurs at a wall-normal location closer to the wall than in an ZPG TBL. Edge intermittency study reveals that the flow is non-turbulent beyond y/δ = 0.8 inside the mean boundary layer edge. The variation of the ratio of pressure gradient to Reynolds shear stress gradient shows that this ratio is very large (> 50) beyond y/δ = 0.8. The dominance of pressure gradient makes this part of sink flow TBL to behave like a Euler-region. Small scales in sink flow TBL tend to be isotropic near the edge of the boundary layer and spectra shows -5/3 law akin to ZPG TBL, albeit at lower Reynolds numbers. The concept of equilibrium is extended to flows with wall transpiration. The sink flow TBL is a special case of more generalised equilibrium TBLs with wall transpiration. Conditions required for the flow with wall transpiration are derived. It is observed that there is a systematic variation of various statistical properties with wall velocity. Further, it is observed that the motion in these equilibrium flows is purely active like in sink flow TBL. In equilibrium TBL, the Reynolds shear stress is directly related to mean velocity. So we have at our disposal an exact relation between the Reynolds shear stress and the mean velocity gradient without the need to do any ad-hoc modelling for the sink flow. This is an interesting observation from the point of view of modelling TBLs using eddy-viscosity. Eddy-viscosity model derived from sink flow TBL data is found to predict the mean velocity profiles in flows with wall transpiration with a sufficient accuracy. Similarly, it is plausible that any general non-equilibrium flow may be treated as a departure from equilibrium. With suitable modifications, eddy viscosity obtained from equilibrium TBL may be used to model them without invoking ad-hoc assumptions. Finally, the effect of initial Reynolds number on the process of relaminarisation is studied numerically and experimentally. ZPG TBLs with two different initial Reynolds number are subjected to different degrees of acceleration. However, the pressure gradient history is same in both the cases. It is observed that the flow with a higher initial Reynolds number relaminarises at a lower pressure gradient value than the flow with a lower initial Reynolds number. Assessment of different parameter criteria reveals that the criterion proposed by Narasimha & Sreenivasan (1973) is appropriate for the prediction of the onset of relaminarisation. Further, the structures in relaminarising flows are studied. The near-wall structure angle is found to decrease with the increasing FPG and the streamwise length of the structure also increases. The low and high speed streaks in the near-wall region are found to become longer and less undulating with an increase in the spanwise spacing. A stabilisation mechanism of near-wall streaks is also presented which suggests that the kinematic effect of mean vertical velocity directed towards the wall is responsible for the stabilisation of streaks.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:08:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 JulioCSN_DISSERT.pdf: 2712130 bytes, checksum: ee800f3d5f68d01d1d955c026ae1891b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-07 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / The multiphase flow occurrence in the oil and gas industry is common throughout fluid path, production, transportation and refining. The multiphase flow is defined as flow simultaneously composed of two or more phases with different properties and immiscible. An important computational tool for the design, planning and optimization production systems is multiphase flow simulation in pipelines and porous media, usually made by multiphase flow commercial simulators. The main purpose of the multiphase flow simulators is predicting pressure and temperature at any point at the production system. This work proposes the development of a multiphase flow simulator able to predict the dynamic pressure and temperature gradient in vertical, directional and horizontal wells. The prediction of pressure and temperature profiles was made by numerical integration using marching algorithm with empirical correlations and mechanistic model to predict pressure gradient. The development of this tool involved set of routines implemented through software programming Embarcadero C++ Builder? 2010 version, which allowed the creation of executable file compatible with Microsoft Windows? operating systems. The simulator validation was conduct by computational experiments and comparison the results with the PIPESIM?. In general, the developed simulator achieved excellent results compared with those obtained by PIPESIM and can be used as a tool to assist production systems development / Na ind?stria do petr?leo a ocorr?ncia de escoamento multif?sico ? comum em todo o percurso dos fluidos, durante a produ??o, transporte e refino. O escoamento multif?sico ? definido como o escoamento simult?neo composto por duas ou mais fases com propriedades diferentes e imisc?veis. Uma importante ferramenta computacional para o dimensionamento, planejamento e otimiza??o de sistemas de produ??o ? a simula??o de escoamento multif?sico em dutos e meios porosos, normalmente, feita por simuladores comerciais. O objetivo b?sico desses simuladores ? prever a press?o e temperatura em diferentes pontos do sistema de produ??o. Este trabalho prop?e o desenvolvimento de um simulador de escoamento multif?sico em po?os verticais, direcionais e horizontais, capaz de determinar o gradiente din?mico de press?o e temperatura. A determina??o dos perfis de press?o e de temperatura foi feita por meio de integra??o num?rica utilizando o algoritmo de marcha com correla??es emp?ricas e modelo mecanicista para determinar o gradiente de press?o. O desenvolvimento do simulador envolveu o conjunto de rotinas implementadas atrav?s do software de programa??o Embarcadero C++ Builder? vers?o 2010, que permitiu a cria??o de arquivo execut?vel compat?vel com os sistemas operacionais da Microsoft Windows?. A valida??o do simulador foi conduzida por experimentos computacionais e compara??o dos resultados com o simulador de uso comercial PIPESIM?. De modo geral, o simulador desenvolvido alcan?ou excelentes resultados quando comparado com os obtidos pelo PIPESIM, podendo ser utilizado como ferramenta para auxiliar no desenvolvimento de sistemas de produ??o

O escoamento líquido-líquido, em especial o escoamento óleo-água, vem atraindo a atenção de pesquisadores devido à alta demanda pelo combustível fóssil no atual cenário petrolífero mundial e nacional. Os desafios tecnológicos colocados pelas descobertas de reservas de óleos pesados e altamente viscosos consideram, em especial, a preocupação por minimizar as perdas energéticas nas linhas. Emulsões inversas ou dispersões óleo-em-água, na qual o óleo se encontra disperso de maneira uniforme em água, caracteriza-se pela baixa viscosidade aparente, tornando-se um tipo de emulsão desejável em algumas etapas do transporte de petróleo. Esses fatos tornam essencial o estudo deste tipo de padrão para o dimensionamento e operação ótima de dutos de produção de petróleo. Contudo, não existe ainda um número abrangente de trabalhos sobre padrão disperso líquido-líquido, ao comparar com escoamento em fases separadas. Trabalhos sobre dispersões têm reportado redução de atrito sem a adição de substâncias químicas em regime turbulento. No entanto, não há ainda um entendimento satisfatório do fenômeno. Na maioria dos trabalhos, sendo quase todos realizados com óleos leves e pouco viscosos, a redução é reportada em dispersões água-em-óleo, com escassos trabalhos reportando o fenômeno em dispersões óleo-em-água. A pesquisa realizada tratou do estudo experimental e teórico de dispersões óleo-em-água em tubulações. O escoamento foi caracterizado a partir da obtenção de dados de holdup, gradiente de pressão por fricção, distribuição das fases e padrão de escoamento. Uma teoria foi proposta para explicar a redução de atrito detectada neste trabalho, baseada na existência de um filme fino de água que escoa em contato com a parede do tubo, a baixos números de Reynolds, evitando o contato direto do núcleo turbulento (mistura bifásica) com a parede do tubo. O referido filme líquido foi detectado e quantificado utilizando-se técnica visual. Além disso, um modelo dinâmico baseado na teoria de lubrificação hidrodinâmica foi desenvolvido como tentativa de explicar a formação do filme líquido parietal no escoamento turbulento de dispersões óleo-água. / Liquid-liquid flow, especially oil-water flow, has attracted the attention of researchers due to the high demand for petroleum in the current global scenario. The discovery of reserves of heavy and highly viscous oils creates new challenges which are mainly concerned with reducing the significant pressure drop in pipes. Inverse emulsion or oil-in-water dispersions in which the oil is dispersed in water is characterized by its low effective viscosity, making it a desirable type of emulsion in some steps of oil production. These facts make the study of dispersed liquid-liquid flow essential for the design and optimal operation of oil pipelines. However, the studies on such flow pattern are scanty in comparison to those on separate flows, as stratified and annular flow patterns. Drag reduction in oil-water turbulent flow without the addition of any chemical substance has been reported in some studies. This phenomenon has received increasing attention in recent years, because there is not a satisfactory understanding of its dynamics yet. Most studies, almost all using light oils, report drag reduction in dispersion of water-in-oil, with few studies reporting the phenomenon in oil-in-water dispersions. This research comprises an experimental and theoretical study on oil-in-water dispersions in pipes. Pressure gradient, holdup, phase distribution and flow patterns data were obtained to characterize the two-phase flow. A theory was proposed to explain the drag reduction detected in this work, based on the existence of a thin water film flowing in contact with the pipe wall at low Reynolds numbers, avoiding contact between the turbulent core (mixture) and the pipe wall. The liquid film was detected and quantified using visual technique. In addition, a dynamic model based on the hydrodynamic lubrication theory was developed as an attempt to explain the formation of the liquid film.

No description available.

Ces travaux de thèse visent à étudier les transferts couplés de chaleur, de masse et d’air au sein des matériaux poreux. Sur le volet de la modélisation, il s’agit de prédire le comportement hygrothermique de ces matériaux, à l’aide d’un modèle macroscopique, qui intègre à la fois l’effet du phénomène de thermodiffusion et celui de la pression totale de l’air s’exerçant sur les parois du bâtiment. Ce modèle, dont les paramètres d’entrée sont évalués expérimentalement, utilise des moteurs de transfert continus, d’où la possibilité de traiter des problèmes de transferts dans les matériaux multicouches. Il présente aussi l’avantage d’admettre, dans certaines configurations, des solutions analytiques d’où la possibilité d’entreprendre des comparaisons avec des solutions numériques. De plus, une justification formelle des équations de bilan de ce modèle a été abordée, moyennant l’utilisation d’une approche à changement d’échelle « micro-macro ». Il s’agit d’affiner la modélisation des transferts hydriques du comportement macroscopique, en utilisant des informations issues de la microstructure. Le passage de l’échelle microscopique à l’échelle macroscopique a été réalisé à l’aide de la méthode d’homogénéisation par prise de moyenne. Une des difficultés de l’utilisation de ce modèle réside dans l’identification des nombreux paramètres caractérisant les propriétés hygrothermiques des matériaux. Une partie du travail a été consacrée à l’évaluation des principales propriétés intrinsèques des matériaux moyennant l’élaboration de différents prototypes expérimentaux au laboratoire. Par ailleurs, une approche expérimentale dédiée à l’évaluation du processus de la thermodiffusion dans les matériaux poreux a été entreprise. Pour cela, une expérimentation relative à la détermination de l’effet du gradient de température et de la dynamique du processus d’échange d’eau à l’intérieur des parois a été mise en place au laboratoire. L’utilisation de la plateforme expérimentale MegaCup du Technical University of Denmark a permis de collecter des données relatives à la sensibilité de l’effet de la thermodiffusion sur les transferts couplés de chaleur, d’air et d’humidité. Une comparaison des résultats expérimentaux et numériques a ensuite été effectuée. Peu d’écarts ont été relevés. Aussi, une investigation expérimentale portant sur la contribution des infiltrations massiques sur les transferts hydriques dans les matériaux de construction a été réalisée. Moyennant le développement d’un banc d’essai, une caractérisation expérimentale du coefficient d’infiltration d’humidité a été entreprise. Ce dernier est utilisé comme paramètre d’entrée des modèles de simulation numérique. / The purpose of this thesis is to study coupled heat air and moisture transfer in porous building materials. Concerning the modeling part, the interest is to predict the hygrothermal behavior, with a macroscopic model, that incorporates simultaneously the effect of thermodiffusion phenomenon and that of total pressure on the building walls. The input parameters are evaluated experimentally using continuous driving potentials, where the ability to deal with problems of transfer in multilayer materials. In some configurations, it presents the advantage to undertake analytical solution that can be confronted with numerical solutions. Furthermore, a formal justification of balance equations of the developed model was addressed through the use of ascaling approach. Then, the modeling of macroscopic moisture transfer behavior, by implementing information from the microstructure can be refined. The transition of the microscopic to macroscopic scale was performed using the mean field homogenization. One of the difficulties with the use of this model lies in the identification of many parameters characterizing the hygrothermal properties of materials. Therefore, a part of the present work was devoted to the evaluation of the main properties of materials through the development of various experimental prototypes in the laboratory. More over, an experimental approach dedicated to the evaluation of the thermodiffusion process in porous materials has been undertaken. In this way, an experimentation concerning the determination of the temperature gradient and dynamics of water exchange process inside walls has been established. Furthermore, the use of the experimental platform MegaCup at theTechnical University of Denmark has collected data on the sensitivity of the thermodiffusion effect. Subsequently, a comparison of the experimental and the numerical results was performed. Few differences were observed. Otherwise, an experimental investigation on the contribution of the mass infiltration of water transfers in building materials was performed. A characterization of the moisture infiltration coefficient was performed through the development of the experimental test. This coefficient was used as an input parameter in the simulation models.

No description available.