<p>Most of the matter in the Universe appears to be in some form which does not emit or absorb light. While evidence for the existence of this dark matter has accumulated over the last seventy years, its nature remains elusive. In this thesis, quasars and low surface brightness galaxies (LSBGs) are used to investigate the properties of the dark matter. </p><p>Quasars are extremely bright light sources which can be seen over vast distances. These cosmic beacons may be used to constrain dark matter in the form of low-mass, compact objects along the line of sight, as such objects are expected to induce brightness fluctuations in quasars through gravitational microlensing effects. Using a numerical microlensing model, we demonstrate that the uncertainty in the typical size of the optical continuum-emitting region in quasars represents the main obstacle in this procedure. We also show that, contrary to claims in the literature, microlensing fails to explain the observed long-term optical variability of quasars. Here, quasar distances are inferred from their redshifts, which are assumed to stem from the expansion of the Universe. Some astronomers do however defend the view that quasar redshifts could have a different origin. A number of potential methods for falsifying claims of such non-cosmological redshifts are proposed. </p><p>As the ratio of dark to luminous matter is known to be unusually high in LSBGs, these objects have become the prime targets for probing dark matter halos around galaxies. Here, we use spectral evolutionary models to constrain the properties of the stellar populations in a class of unusually blue LSBGs. Using rotation curve data obtained at the ESO Very Large Telescope, we also investigate the density profiles of their dark halos. We find our measurements to be inconsistent with the predictions of the currently favoured cold dark matter scenario.</p>

Most of the matter in the Universe appears to be in some form which does not emit or absorb light. While evidence for the existence of this dark matter has accumulated over the last seventy years, its nature remains elusive. In this thesis, quasars and low surface brightness galaxies (LSBGs) are used to investigate the properties of the dark matter. Quasars are extremely bright light sources which can be seen over vast distances. These cosmic beacons may be used to constrain dark matter in the form of low-mass, compact objects along the line of sight, as such objects are expected to induce brightness fluctuations in quasars through gravitational microlensing effects. Using a numerical microlensing model, we demonstrate that the uncertainty in the typical size of the optical continuum-emitting region in quasars represents the main obstacle in this procedure. We also show that, contrary to claims in the literature, microlensing fails to explain the observed long-term optical variability of quasars. Here, quasar distances are inferred from their redshifts, which are assumed to stem from the expansion of the Universe. Some astronomers do however defend the view that quasar redshifts could have a different origin. A number of potential methods for falsifying claims of such non-cosmological redshifts are proposed. As the ratio of dark to luminous matter is known to be unusually high in LSBGs, these objects have become the prime targets for probing dark matter halos around galaxies. Here, we use spectral evolutionary models to constrain the properties of the stellar populations in a class of unusually blue LSBGs. Using rotation curve data obtained at the ESO Very Large Telescope, we also investigate the density profiles of their dark halos. We find our measurements to be inconsistent with the predictions of the currently favoured cold dark matter scenario.

Ce travail de thèse se sépare en deux volets. Le premier volet concerne l'étude de l'homogénéité de l'univers, et le second une mesure de l'échelle BAO, qui constitue une règle standard permettant de mesurer l'évolution du taux d'expansion de l'univers. Ces deux analyses reposent sur l'étude de la structuration (ou clustering) des quasars des relevés BOSS et eBOSS, qui couvrent la gamme en redshift 0,9 < z < 2,8. Les mesures des observables caractérisant la structuration de l'univers aux grandes échelles sont très sensibles aux effets systématiques, nous avons donc étudiés ces effets en profondeur. Nous avons mis en évidence que les sélections de cibles quasars BOSS et eBOSS ne sont pas parfaitement homogènes, et corrigé cet effet. Au final, la mesure de la fonction de corrélation des quasars nous a permis de mesurer le biais des quasars sur la gamme en redshift 0,9 < z < 2,8. Nous obtenons la mesure actuelle la plus précise du biais, b = 3,85 ± 0,11 dans la gamme 2,2 < z < 2,8 pour le relevé BOSS, et b = 2,44 ± 0,04 dans la gamme 0,9 < z < 2,2 pour le relevé eBOSS. Le Principe Cosmologique stipule que notre univers est isotrope et homogène à grande échelle. Il s'agit d'un des postulats de base de la cosmologie moderne. En étudiant la structuration à très grande échelle des quasars, nous avons prouvé l'isotropie spatiale de l'univers dans la gamme 0,9 < z < 2,8, indépendamment de toute hypothèse et cosmologie fiducielle. L'isotropie spatiale stipule que l'univers est isotrope dans chaque couche de redshift. En la combinant au principe de Copernic, qui stipule que nous ne nous situons pas à une position particulière dans l'univers, permet de prouver que notre univers est homogène aux grandes échelles. Nous avons effectué une mesure de la dimension de corrélation fractale de l'univers, D₂(r), en utilisant un nouvel estimateur, inspiré de l'estimateur de Landy-Szalay pour la fonction de corrélation. En corrigeant notre estimateur du biais des quasars, nous avons mesuré (3 - D₂(r)) = (6,0 ± 2,1) x 10⁻⁵ entre 250 h⁻¹ Mpc et 1200 h⁻¹ Mpc pour le relevé eBOSS, dans la gamme 0,9 < z < 2,2. Pour le relevé BOSS, nous obtenons (3 - D₂(r)) = (3,9 ± 2,1) x 10⁻⁵, dans la gamme 2,2 < z < 2,8. De plus, nous montrons que le modèle Lambda-CDM décrit très bien la transition d'un régime structuré vers un régime homogène. D’autre part, nous avons mesuré la position du pic BAO dans les fonctions de corrélation des quasars BOSS et eBOSS, détecté à 2,5 sigma dans les deux relevés. Si nous mesurons le paramètre α, qui correspond au rapport entre la position du pic mesuré et la position prédite par une cosmologie fiducielle (en utilisant les paramètres Planck 2013), nous mesurons α = 1,074 pour le relevé BOSS, et α = 1,009 pour le relevé eBOSS. Ces mesures, combinées uniquement à la mesure locale de H₀, nous permettent de contraindre l'espace des paramètres de modèles au-delà du Lambda-CDM. / This work consists in two parts. The first one is a study of cosmic homogeneity, and the second one a measurement of the BAO scale, which provides a standard ruler that allows for a direct measurement of the expansion rate of the universe. These two analyses rely on the study of quasar clustering in the BOSS and eBOSS quasar samples, which cover the redshift range 0.9 < z < 2.8. On large scales, the measurement of statistical observables is very sensitive to systematic effects, so we deeply studied these effects. We found evidences that the target selections of BOSS and eBOSS quasars are not perfectly homogeneous, and we have corrected this effect. The measurement of the quasar correlation function provides the quasar bias in the redshift range 0.9 < z < 2.8. We obtain the most precise measurement of the quasar bias at high redshift, b = 3.85 ± 0.11, in the range 2.2 < z < 2.8 for the BOSS survey, and b = 2.44 ± 0.04 in the range 0.9 < z < 2.2 for the eBOSS survey. The Cosmological Principle states that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic on large scales. It is one of the basic assumptions of modern cosmology. By studying quasar clustering on large scales, we have proved ''spatial isotropy'', i.e. the fact that the universe is isotropic in each redshift bins. This has been done in the range 0.9 < z < 2.8 without any assumption or fiducial cosmology. If we combine spatial isotropy with the Copernican Principle, which states that we do not occupy a peculiar place in the universe, it is proved that the universe is homogeneous on large scales. We provide a measurement of the fractal correlation dimension of the universe, D₂(r), which is 3 for an homogeneous distribution, and we used a new estimator inspired from the Landy-Szalay estimator for the correlation function. If we correct our measurement for quasar bias, we obtain (3 - D₂(r)) = (6.0 ± 2.1) x 10⁻⁵ between 250 h⁻¹ Mpc and 1200 h⁻¹ Mpc for eBOSS, in the range 0.9 < z < 2.2. For BOSS, we obtain (3 - D₂(r)) = (3.9 ± 2.1) x 10⁻⁵, in the range 2.2 < z < 2.8. Moreover, we have shown that the Lambda-CDM model provide a very nice description of the transition from structures to homogeneity. We have also measured the position of the BAO peak in the BOSS and eBOSS quasar correlation functions, which yield a 2,5 sigma detection in both surveys. If we measure the α parameter, which corresponds to the ratio of the measured position of the peak to the predicted position in a fiducial cosmology (here Planck 2013), we measure α = 1.074 for BOSS, and α = 1.009 for eBOSS. These measurements, combined only with the local measurement of H₀, allows for constraints in parameter space for models beyond Lambda-CDM.

QuasArs, eine neue Klasse von fluoreszierenden Membranspannungssensoren basierend auf Archaerhodopsin-3, wurde von Hochbaum et al. im Jahr 2014 beschrieben. Die neuen Konstrukte zeigen eine für mikrobielle Rhodopsine außergewöhnlich hohe Fluoreszenzquantenausbeute. Außerdem ist die Fluoreszenz spannungsabhängig, was für Membranspannungssensoren eine wünschenswerte Eigenschaft ist. Diese Sensoren bieten ein hohes räumliches und zeitliches Auflösungsvermögen, wodurch neuronale Aktivität verfolgt werden könnte. Obwohl mehrere Varianten vorgeschlagen wurden ist ihre Fluoreszenzquantenausbeute immer noch zu gering (<1%) für Anwendungen in lebenden Nagetieren und erfordert weitere Verbesserungen für bildgebende Anwendungen. Das rationale Design der Rhodopsin-basierten Fluoreszenzsensoren der nächsten Generation ist jedoch nur eingeschränkt möglich, da die derzeit verwendeten QuasArs mittels zufälliger Mutagenese gefunden wurden. Um verbesserte Konstrukte zu entwickeln, ist es wichtig die Funktionalität der spannungssensitiven Fluoreszenz und die Rolle der eingeführten Mutationen zu verstehen. In dieser Arbeit wurden die mikrobiellen Rhodopsin-basierten Spannungssensoren und der Ursprung ihrer spannungsmodulierten Fluoreszenz untersucht. Die Photodynamik dieser Spannungssensoren wurde mit UV/Vis-Steady-State und -transienter Spektroskopie untersucht. Die Archaerhodopsin-3 Varianten durchlaufen einen ungewöhnlichen Photozyklus mit verlängerter Lebensdauer des angeregten Zustands und ineffizienter Photoisomerisierung. Präresonanz-Raman-Spektroskopie und Hochdruckflüssigkeitschromatographie ermöglichten die direkte Untersuchung des Chromophors in diesen besonderen Rhodopsinen. Molekulardynamiksimulationen, unterstützt durch spektroskopische Studien, liefern ein Modell der Proteindynamik unter Einfluss der Membranspannung. Protein-Engineering ermöglichte die Identifizierung der Aminosäuren, die für die Erhöhung der Fluoreszenzquantenausbeute benötigt werden, und der Schlüsselreste, die an der Spannungsmessung beteiligt sind. Aussichtsreiche Konstrukte mit verbesserten Eigenschaften wurden vorgeschlagen und getestet. / Novel class of fluorescent membrane voltage sensors QuasArs, based on Archaerhodopsin-3, have been reported by Hochbaum et al. in 2014. The new constructs show unusually high fluorescence quantum yield for microbial rhodopsins. Furthermore the fluorescence is voltage-dependent, which is a desirable property for membrane voltage sensors. These tools would offer high spatiotemporal resolution allowing to track neuronal spiking. Although multiple constructs have been proposed, their fluorescence quantum yield is still too low (<1%) for applications in living rodents and requires further improvement for imaging applications. However, rational design of the next generation rhodopsin-based fluorescent sensors is restrained since the current constructs were found using random mutagenesis. To develop improved constructs it is essential to understand the functionality of the voltage-sensitive fluorescence and the role of the introduced mutations. In this thesis, the microbial rhodopsin based voltage sensors and the origin of their voltage-modulated fluorescence were studied. The photodynamics of microbial rhodopsin-based voltage sensors were studied with UV/Vis steady state and transient spectroscopy. The archaerhodopsin-3 variants undergo an unusual photocycle with extended excited state lifetime and inefficient photoisomerization. Pre-resonance Raman spectroscopy and high-pressure liquid chromatography allowed to directly study the chromophore composition in these peculiar rhodopsins. Molecular dynamics simulations, supported by spectroscopic studies, provide a model of protein dynamics taking place under different membrane voltage conditions. Protein engineering allowed to identify the residues needed for the increase of the fluorescence quantum yield and key residues involved in the voltage sensing. Promising constructs, with improved properties, were proposed and tested.

The overall aim of this thesis is to investigate the environments of AGN, in particular, the density of galaxies in the environments of radio-loud and radio-quiet AGN. This determines whether AGN trace dense environments at high redshifts and whether the environments are important in addressing the problem of radio-loud dichotomy. I extend my research by investigating whether star-formation evolves differently in high-redshift AGN environments compared to the field. I begin by investigating the environments of 169 AGN using Spitzer data at z ∼ 1. I investigate the source density of star-forming galaxies in the environments of radio galaxies, radio-loud quasars and radio- quiet quasars. I do not find any significant overdensity of star-forming galaxies in these environments, although I find tentative evidence for a diff erence in the colours of galaxies in the radio galaxy environments compared to the quasar and field environments. I next use VIDEO data to investigate the environments of the quasars out to z ∼ 3. Firstly, I use a training sample of QSOs and galaxies, which trains a neural network to detect QSOs in the VIDEO data. I detect 274 possible QSOs in the VIDEO data using this method. I am able to determine that the efficiency of the neural network clas- sification is 95 per cent using the training sample. I compare these results to a colour selection method, which detects 88 QSOs in the VIDEO data, and find that the neural network is able to detect ∼ 80 per cent of the colour selected QSOs at Ks = 21. I then investigate the source overdensity using a radial analysis on the environments of the VIDEO QSOs. I find a significant overdensity of galaxies in the environments of the whole QSO sample and in the environments of the radio-loud quasars compared to the radio-quiet quasars. I extend the density analysis by using a second density measure, called the spatial clustering amplitude technique, to compare the environments of the quasars with their radio luminosities, absolute magnitudes and redshifts. I do not fi any significant correlations between environmental density and radio luminosity, absolute magnitude or redshift for the QSOs. I extend this research to investigate the type of galaxies found in the AGN environments. However, I do not find any significant differences between the type of galaxies found in the QSO environments and the background field.

We present multisightline absorption spectroscopy of cool gas around three lensing galaxies at z = 0.4-0.7. These lenses have half-light radii r(e) = 2.6-8 kpc and stellar masses of log M-*/M-circle dot = 10.9-11.4, and therefore resemble nearby passive elliptical galaxies. The lensed QSO sightlines presented here occur at projected distances of d = 3-15 kpc (or d approximate to 1-2 r(e)) from the lensing galaxies, providing for the first time an opportunity to probe both interstellar gas at r similar to r(e) and circumgalactic gas at larger radii r >> r(e) of these distant quiescent galaxies. We observe distinct gas absorption properties among different lenses and among sightlines of individual lenses. Specifically, while the quadruple lens for HE 0435-1223 shows no absorption features to very sensitive limits along all four sightlines, strong MgII, Fe II, Mg I, and Ca II absorption transitions are detected along both sightlines near the double lens for HE 0047-1756, and in one of the two sightlines near the double lens for HE 1104-1805. The absorbers are resolved into 8-15 individual components with a line-of-sight velocity spread of Delta v approximate to 300-600 km s(-1). The large ionic column densities, log N greater than or similar to 14, observed in two components suggest that these may be Lyman limit or damped Ly a absorbers with a significant neutral hydrogen fraction. The majority of the absorbing components exhibit a uniform supersolar Fe/Mg ratio with a scatter of < 0.1 dex across the full Delta v range. Given a predominantly old stellar population in these lensing galaxies, we argue that the observed large velocity width and Fe-rich abundance pattern can be explained by SNe Ia enriched gas at radius r similar to r(e). We show that additional spatial constraints in line-of-sight velocity and relative abundance ratios afforded by a multisightline approach provide a powerful tool to resolve the origin of chemically enriched cool gas in massive haloes.

Using Hubble Space Telescope Cosmic Origins Spectrograph observations of 89 QSO sightlines through the Sloan Digital Sky Survey footprint, we study the relationships between C IV absorption systems and the properties of nearby galaxies, as well as the large-scale environment. To maintain sensitivity to very faint galaxies, we restrict our sample to 0.0015 < z < 0.015, which defines a complete galaxy survey to L (SIC) 0.01 L-* or stellar mass M-* (SIC) 10(8) M-circle dot. We report two principal findings. First, for galaxies with impact parameter rho < 1 r(vir), C IV detection strongly depends on the luminosity/stellar mass of the nearby galaxy. C IV is preferentially associated with galaxies with M-* > 10(9.5) M-circle dot; lower-mass galaxies rarely exhibit significant C IV absorption (covering fraction f(C) = 9(-6)(+12)% for 11 galaxies with M-* < 10(9.5) M-circle dot.). Second, C IV detection within the M-* > 10(9.5) M-circle dot. population depends on environment. Using a fixed-aperture environmental density metric for galaxies with rho < 160 kpc at z < 0.055, we find that 57(-13)(+12)% (8/14) of galaxies in low-density regions (regions with fewer than seven L > 0.15 L* galaxies within 1.5 Mpc) have affiliated C IV absorption; however, none (0/7) of the galaxies in denser regions show C IV. Similarly, the C IV detection rate is lower for galaxies residing in groups with dark matter halo masses of M-halo > 10(12.5) M-circle dot. In contrast to C IV, H. I is pervasive in the circumgalactic medium without regard to mass or environment. These results indicate that C IV absorbers with log N(C IV). (SIC) 13.5 cm(-2) trace the halos of M-* > 10(9.5) M-circle dot galaxies but also reflect larger-scale environmental conditions.

We report new IRAM/PdBI, JCMT/SCUBA-2, and VLA observations of the ultraluminous quasar SDSS J010013.02+280225.8 (hereafter, J0100+2802) at z =. 6.3, which hosts the most massive supermassive black hole (SMBH), 1.24 x 10(10) M circle dot, that is known at z > 6. We detect the [C II] 158 mu m fine structure line and molecular CO(6-5) line and continuum emission at 353, 260, and 3 GHz from this quasar. The CO(2-1) line and the underlying continuum at 32 GHz are also marginally detected. The [C II] and CO detections suggest active star formation and highly excited molecular gas in the quasar host galaxy. The redshift determined with the [C II] and CO lines shows a velocity offset of similar to 1000 km s(-1) from that measured with the quasar Mg II line. The CO (2-1) line luminosity provides a direct constraint on the molecular gas mass, which is about (1.0 +/- 0.3) x 10(10) M circle dot We estimate the FIR luminosity to be (3.5 +/- 0.7) x 10(12) L circle dot, and the UV-to-FIR spectral energy distribution of J0100 +2802 is consistent with the templates of the local optically luminous quasars. The derived [C II]-to-FIR luminosity ratio of J0100+2802 is 0.0010 +/- 0.0002, which is slightly higher than the values of the most FIR luminous quasars at z similar to 6. We investigate the constraint on the host galaxy dynamical mass of J0100 vertical bar 2802 based on the [C II] line spectrum. It is likely that this ultraluminous quasar lies above the local SMBH-galaxy mass relationship, unless we are viewing the system at a small inclination angle.

After several years of quiescence, the blazar CTA 102 underwent an exceptional outburst in 2012 September-October. The flare was tracked from gamma-ray to near-infrared (NIR) frequencies, including Fermi and Swift data as well as photometric and polarimetric data from several observatories. An intensive Glast-Agile support programme of the Whole Earth Blazar Telescope (GASP-WEBT) collaboration campaign in optical and NIR bands, with an addition of previously unpublished archival data and extension through fall 2015, allows comparison of this outburst with the previous activity period of this blazar in 2004-2005. We find remarkable similarity between the optical and gamma-ray behaviour of CTA 102 during the outburst, with a time lag between the two light curves of approximate to 1 h, indicative of cospatiality of the optical and gamma-ray emission regions. The relation between the gamma-ray and optical fluxes is consistent with the synchrotron self-Compton (SSC) mechanism, with a quadratic dependence of the SSC gamma -ray flux on the synchrotron optical flux evident in the post-outburst stage. However, the gamma -ray/optical relationship is linear during the outburst; we attribute this to changes in the Doppler factor. A strong harder-when-brighter spectral dependence is seen both the in gamma-ray and optical non-thermal emission. This hardening can be explained by convexity of the UV-NIR spectrum that moves to higher frequencies owing to an increased Doppler shift as the viewing angle decreases during the outburst stage. The overall pattern of Stokes parameter variations agrees with a model of a radiating blob or shock wave that moves along a helical path down the jet.

There is strong observational evidence indicating a time lag of order of some 100 Myr between the onset of starburst and AGN activity in galaxies. Dynamical time lags have been invoked to explain this. We extend this approach by introducing a viscous time lag the gas additionally needs to flow through the AGN's accretion disc before it reaches the central black hole. Our calculations reproduce the observed time lags and are in accordance with the observed correlation between black hole mass and stellar velocity dispersion.