Background: Developmental dyslexia is a wide-ranging and persistent neurobiological disorder classified under specific learning disorders. The literature widely recognises the multifactorial nature of developmental dyslexia, specifically the language-related origin. Objectives: The current review systematically identified and synthesised possible language-based risk factors associated with developmental dyslexia in children (age one to three and four to ten years) and determined the level of evidence associated with these risk factors. The review aimed to identify individualised risk factors in children with developmental dyslexia to promote optimal neurodevelopmental outcomes. Method: Four relevant databases were searched from January 2002 until December 2018. A hand search of the included articles’ reference lists was also performed to identify any relevant publication. The language-based risk factors in children with developmental dyslexia in 48 publications were studied. Results: All language components are compromised to some degree in children with developmental dyslexia at specific ages. These results indicate the intricacy of language, but also emphasise that developmental dyslexia should be considered on a continuum and not as an absolute disorder. Only a few studies investigated language-based risk factors in participants five years and younger. Phonological-based risk factors were the most reported language component and comprise of risk factors within phonological awareness, rapid automized naming, and working memory. The second language component entailed morphology. Several inflectional and derivational morphological risk factors, as well as risk factors within syntactic processing, were acknowledged. Compromised receptive and expressive vocabulary knowledge, semantic processing, and fluency were identified as risk factors for the language component of semantics. The final component of language entailed pragmatics. Unfortunately, a limited amount of evidence is available in this regard. However, the evidence available confirmed poor linguistic pragmatics as a risk factor in children with developmental dyslexia. Conclusion: These language components are interrelated and should be viewed holistically as risk factors for developmental dyslexia to promote earlier identification. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology / MA / Unrestricted

<p>The thesis opens with an exposition of different uses of the term dyslexia. In that context its conceptual relevance is discussed. The empirical studies investigate a) different aspects of validity of cognitive and achievement instruments often used in diagnostic assessment of dyslexia, b) different cognitive profiles for adults with dyslexia, and c) the relationship between cognitive and achievement measures.</p><p>Study I demonstrated the factor structure of the Swedish WAIS-R to be in close agreement with results of comparable analyses on normal and clinical groups in many countries world-wide, giving strong support for the construct validity of the Swedish WAIS-R for a group of adults diagnosed with dyslexia. The results from the three-factor solution were interpreted in terms of theoretical constructs, notably those posited by Carroll (1993) and Horn (1989).</p><p>The cognitive profiles of a sample of Swedish adults diagnosed with dyslexia—when using the three factors, the ACID profile, and the four-category Bannatyne profile—all resemble closely the profiles observed for a wide array of U.S. samples of children and adults diagnosed with dyslexia or learning disabilities. Gender differences on Digit Symbol, favoring females, were substantial in magnitude for the present sample, consistent with a bulk of research on gender differences for samples of normal individuals and of those identified with learning problems.</p><p>In Study II, factor analysis of nine Swedish achievement tests often used for dyslexia assessment yielded five meaningful factors in a group of adults diagnosed with dyslexia. Factors appeared to measure decoding, visual speed, reading comprehension, reading fluency, and phonological ability. The relationship between the five achievement factors and WAIS-R variables was subsequently examined. The Visual Speed and Reading Comprehension factors each correlated significantly with four of six global WAIS-R scores (two of three IQs and two of three factor scores). Visual Speed tended to correlate significantly with nonverbal scores and Reading Comprehension with verbal scores. Although the Phonological Ability factor did not correlate significantly with any verbal or nonverbal global score, it did correlate significantly with the Freedom from Distractibility factor and with all its component subtests—Digit Span, Arithmetic, and Digit Symbol. Decoding (technical reading skill) showed no significant relationship to any WAIS-R variable studied. More surprisingly, the Reading Fluency factor failed to show significant relationships to the WAIS-R.</p><p>Study III examined the validity of The Word Chain Test, a frequently used instrument in Swedish screening and diagnostic assessments of dyslexia. Different sources of validity evidence were evaluated. In summary, the results failed to support validity both for the WRI-index and the Wordchain subtest, suggesting that the instrument seems to be of questionable value in screening or diagnostic assessment of dyslexia.</p>

The thesis opens with an exposition of different uses of the term dyslexia. In that context its conceptual relevance is discussed. The empirical studies investigate a) different aspects of validity of cognitive and achievement instruments often used in diagnostic assessment of dyslexia, b) different cognitive profiles for adults with dyslexia, and c) the relationship between cognitive and achievement measures. Study I demonstrated the factor structure of the Swedish WAIS-R to be in close agreement with results of comparable analyses on normal and clinical groups in many countries world-wide, giving strong support for the construct validity of the Swedish WAIS-R for a group of adults diagnosed with dyslexia. The results from the three-factor solution were interpreted in terms of theoretical constructs, notably those posited by Carroll (1993) and Horn (1989). The cognitive profiles of a sample of Swedish adults diagnosed with dyslexia—when using the three factors, the ACID profile, and the four-category Bannatyne profile—all resemble closely the profiles observed for a wide array of U.S. samples of children and adults diagnosed with dyslexia or learning disabilities. Gender differences on Digit Symbol, favoring females, were substantial in magnitude for the present sample, consistent with a bulk of research on gender differences for samples of normal individuals and of those identified with learning problems. In Study II, factor analysis of nine Swedish achievement tests often used for dyslexia assessment yielded five meaningful factors in a group of adults diagnosed with dyslexia. Factors appeared to measure decoding, visual speed, reading comprehension, reading fluency, and phonological ability. The relationship between the five achievement factors and WAIS-R variables was subsequently examined. The Visual Speed and Reading Comprehension factors each correlated significantly with four of six global WAIS-R scores (two of three IQs and two of three factor scores). Visual Speed tended to correlate significantly with nonverbal scores and Reading Comprehension with verbal scores. Although the Phonological Ability factor did not correlate significantly with any verbal or nonverbal global score, it did correlate significantly with the Freedom from Distractibility factor and with all its component subtests—Digit Span, Arithmetic, and Digit Symbol. Decoding (technical reading skill) showed no significant relationship to any WAIS-R variable studied. More surprisingly, the Reading Fluency factor failed to show significant relationships to the WAIS-R. Study III examined the validity of The Word Chain Test, a frequently used instrument in Swedish screening and diagnostic assessments of dyslexia. Different sources of validity evidence were evaluated. In summary, the results failed to support validity both for the WRI-index and the Wordchain subtest, suggesting that the instrument seems to be of questionable value in screening or diagnostic assessment of dyslexia.

Children who are English Language Learners (ELLs) are often falsely identified with reading disorders. Similarly, some ELLs with true reading disorders are overlooked because it is assumed that they are still acquiring the necessary reading skills in English. This review of current bilingual assessment literature focuses on the use of early screening tasks to identify potential reading disorders among ELLs. These assessment tasks cover phonological, letter naming, rapid naming, sequencing and reading skill sets. This review synthesizes current research findings to determine which tasks are the most appropriate for assessing future reading disorders among children from linguistically diverse backgrounds. Results were mixed. Further research is needed to determine the best methods for reading assessment of ELLs. / text

This research examines the textual performance, in understanding and production, of 42 subjects of the fourth and fifth grades with (21 subjects) and without (21 subjects) complaints of desabilities/disorder of writing language, who attended two municipal schools of Santa Maria. Try to relate those performances with practices of literacy at home and school. The study also interviewed Portuguese teachers and their studants to observe their criteria for evaluating the textual performance and identification of subjects with low performance, which attach suspicion of desabilities/disorder of writing language. The results showed a general low textual performance, as much in the group with as without complaint of disability/disorder. There was, however, the worst performing in group with complaints on aspects as acceptability and progression in both grades, and intent, situational and repetition only in fourth grade. Students of both groups had low textual performance in comprehension. Teachers differ about the focus of textual work. While the teacher at a school more focused on textual progressing, the teacher of another school more formal aspects such as spelling. It was concluded that the textual work is focused so partial in schools and in the family. The data suggest that there are major environmental problems that must be solved so that the subjects can progress in their textual performance and which get doubts about about writing disorders diagnostics as dyslexia in the studied cases. / Esta pesquisa analisa o desempenho textual, em compreensão e produção, de 42 sujeitos de quarta e quinta séries do ensino fundamental,1 com (21 sujeitos) e sem (21 sujeitos) queixas de dificuldade/distúrbio na linguagem escrita, que freqüentavam duas escolas municipais de Santa Maria. Busca-se relacionar os referidos desempenhos com práticas de letramento familiar e escolar. O estudo também entrevistou dois professores de português dos alunos para observar seus critérios de avaliação do desempenho textual e de identificação de sujeitos com suspeita de dificuldade/distúrbio de linguagem escrita. Os resultados demonstraram baixo desempenho textual geral, tanto no grupo com queixa quanto no grupo sem queixa de dificuldade/distúrbio. Houve, no entanto, desempenho pior do grupo com queixa de dificuldade/distúrbio em linguagem escrita em aspectos como aceitabilidade e progressão, em ambas as séries, e intencionalidade, situacionalidade e repetição exclusivamente na quarta série. Ambos os grupos apresentaram baixo desempenho na compreensão textual. Os professores diferiram quanto ao foco de trabalho textual. Enquanto o professor de uma escola enfocava mais a progressão textual, a professora da outra escola abordava mais os aspectos formais como a ortografia. Concluiu-se que o trabalho textual é enfocado de modo parcial nas escolas, delineando práticas insuficientes de letramento na sala de aula e na família. Sugerem que há dificuldades ambientais importantes que devem ser sanadas, para que os sujeitos evoluam em seu desempenho textual, o que coloca em questão diagnósticos de distúrbios como a dislexia nos casos estudados.

Datorer till varje elev blir allt vanligare i gymnasieskolan. Med datorn följer oändliga möjligheter till undervisning och lärande men också många dilemman för lärare. Det finns ofta en övertro på att modern teknik ska ”fixa” dessa pedagogiska dilemman och att lärare med automatik ska veta hur tekniken ska användas. Forskning kring elever i läs- och skrivsvårigheter berättar att det finns många fördelar att vinna med användning av teknologiska verktyg i undervisningen. Motivation, ökat självförtroende, ökade möjligheter till lärande och bättre skolresultat för elever i svårigheter men också för övriga elever. Pedagogiska appar är uppbyggda enligt teorin kring scaffolding och kan, rätt använda, utöka varje elevs ”zone of proximate development”. Syftet med detta examensarbete är att genom en enkät riktad till elever i gymnasieskolan undersöka deras användning av teknologiska verktyg, pedagogiska appar samt deras uppfattning kring nyttan av dessa. Resultatet visar att nästan alla elever använder PC, tillhandahållna av skolorna, men att det främst är inom ämnena svenska och engelska de använder stöd i form av stavningshjälp, uppläst text mm. Användning och kännedom av och kring appar och stödjande program är lågt, även om många av eleverna anger att de har svårigheter att stava så anger endast 10% att de regelbundet använder sig av stöd för stavning. Användningen är alltså låg även fast resultatet också visar på att eleverna upplever positiva effekter av användningen av teknologiska verktyg i form av bland annat ökad motivation och kontroll. Resultatet ger upphov till en mängd frågor rörande orsaken till det låga användandet. Bland annat: har lärarna för låg teknisk kompetens? För låg kännedom kring vilken app som passar bäst och hur den används? Köper skolorna in fel verktyg? Ger vi elever i svårigheter de stöd och kompetenser som möjliggör ett gott studieresultat samt ett framtida fungerande samhällsliv? / A computer for every student is more and more common in high school. With the computer come endless possibilities for teaching and learning but also many dilemmas for teachers. There is often an over-reliance on technology to “fix” these educational dilemmas and that teachers automatically will know how to use this new technology. Research on students with reading and writing disorder show that there are many advantages to gain with the use of educational technology. Motivation, increased self confidence, more possibilities for learning and better school results for students in need but also for other students. Educational apps are constructed according to the theory of scaffolding and can, if used correctly, increase every student’s ”zone of proximate development”. The purpose of this essay is, through the means of a survey aimed at high school/ upper secondary students, examine their use of educational technology and apps and also their perception of the possible gain of these. The results show that nearly every student use a computer/PC made available from their schools. However it is almost exclusively in the subjects Swedish and English they use any support in the form of spelling apps or text read out loud. Usage and knowledge of apps and other supportive software are low. Even if many students answer that they have difficulties in spelling only 10 % say that they regularly use any support when spelling. So the usage is low although the study also shows that the students perceive positive effects from using educational technology, taking the form of increased motivation and control. Our result gives rise to a number of questions concerning the cause of the low usage. Among others: Do teachers have too little technological knowledge and competence? Do they know too little about how to use apps or what app to use? Do schools buy the wrong technological tools for their students? Do we really give students with reading or writing disorder the support and knowledge that would achieve school success and later a working social life?

O Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade (TDAH) é caracterizado por sintomas de desatenção e/ou hiperatividade e impulsividade, causando prejuízos significativos na vida dos indivíduos desde a infância até a vida adulta. Pacientes com TDAH podem apresentar diferentes comorbidades, que causam prejuízos substanciais, repercutindo de forma negativa ao longo da vida. Um exemplo são os Transtornos Específicos da Aprendizagem (TEA), caracterizados pela presença de dificuldades específicas na leitura, na escrita e na matemática que podem interferir no desenvolvimento educacional, resultando em elevadas taxas de evasão escolar e por conseguinte, altas taxas de desemprego. O insucesso acadêmico é comum ao TDAH e ao TEA, havendo indícios de ser mais grave quando estes são comórbidos. Apesar da associação frequente entre TDAH e TEA, poucos estudos têm abordado tal comorbidade durante a idade adulta. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo é investigar em que extensão o prejuízo acadêmico de adultos com TDAH pode ser explicado pela comorbidade com o TEA. A avaliação para TEA foi realizada por uma psicopedagoga em 53 adultos que apresentavam TDAH, previamente avaliados no Programa de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, com um protocolo especificamente delineado conforme critérios diagnósticos especificados pelo DSM-5. Portadores e não portadores de TEA foram comparados quanto às características sociodemográficas, gravidade do TDAH e outras comorbidades frequentes. A presença de TEA foi associada a baixas taxas de conclusão da graduação universitária (P = 0,016). Os dados indicam que a sobreposição do TEA ao TDAH pode ser responsável por uma parcela substancial do prejuízo acadêmico presente no TDAH, levando à necessidade de mais estudos a fim de confirmar ou não esta importante observação. / Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity, causing significant impairments in individuals' lives from childhood to adulthood. Patients with ADHD may present different comorbidities, which cause substantial damage, negatively impacting throughout life. One example is Specific Learning Disorders (SLD), characterized by the presence of specific difficulties in reading, writing and mathematics that may interfere with educational development, resulting in high rates of school dropout and, therefore, high unemployment rates. Academic failure is common to ADHD and SLD, with indications of being more severe when these are comorbid. Despite the frequent association between ADHD and SLD, few studies have addressed such comorbidity during adulthood. Thus, the goal of the present study is to investigate up to what extent the academic loss on adults with ADHD can be explained by the comorbidity with SLD. The evaluation for SLD was performed by a psychopedagogue in 53 adults who presented ADHD, previously evaluated in the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre's Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Program, with a specific delineated protocol and according to diagnostic criteria specified by DSM-5 and were compared for sociodemographic characteristics, severity of ADHD and other frequent comorbidities. The presence of ADHD was associated with low graduation rates (P = 0.016). The data indicate that SLD overlapping with ADHD may be responsible for a substantial portion of the academic impairment present in ADHD, leading to the need for further studies to confirm this important observation.

Dans cette thèse, nous proposons un nouveau modèle conceptuel de la reconnaissance visuelle de mots implémenté sous forme mathématique de façon à évaluer sa capacité à reproduire les observations expérimentales du domaine. Une revue critique des modèles computationnels existants nous conduit à définir un cahier des charges sous la forme de cinq hypothèses qui sont à la base du modèle conceptuel proposé : le modèle est doté d'une architecture à trois niveaux (sensoriel, perceptif et lexical) ; le traitement est parallèle sur l'ensemble des lettres du stimulus ; l'encodage positionnel est distribué ; enfin, le traitement sensoriel des lettres intègre position du regard, acuité visuelle et distribution de l'attention visuelle. L'implémentation repose sur la méthodologie de la modélisation bayésienne algorithmique, conduisant au modèle BRAID (pour "Bayesian word Recognition with Attention, Interference and Dynamics").Nous vérifions la capacité du modèle à rendre compte des données obtenues en perceptibilité des lettres (par exemple, effets de supériorité des mots et des pseudo-mots, effets de contexte), en reconnaissance de mots et en décision lexicale (par exemple, effets de fréquence et de voisinage). Au total, nous simulons avec succès 28 expériences comportementales, permettant de rendre compte d'effets subtils dans chacun des domaines ciblés. Nous discutons les choix théoriques du modèle à la lumière de ces résultats expérimentaux, et proposons des perspectives d'extension du modèle, soulignant la flexibilité du formalisme choisi. / In this thesis, we propose an original theoretical framework of visual word recognition, and implement it mathematically to evaluate its ability to reproduce experimental observations of the field. A critical review of previous computational models leads us to define specifications in the form of a set of five hypotheses, that form the basis of the proposed theoretical framework: the model is built on a three-layer architecture (sensory, perceptual, lexical); letter processing is parallel; positional coding is distributed; finally, sensory processing involves gaze position, visual acuity, and visual attention distribution. To implement the model, we rely on the Bayesian algorithmic modeling methodology, and define the BRAID model (for "Bayesian word Recognition with Attention, Interference and Dynamics").

O Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade (TDAH) é caracterizado por sintomas de desatenção e/ou hiperatividade e impulsividade, causando prejuízos significativos na vida dos indivíduos desde a infância até a vida adulta. Pacientes com TDAH podem apresentar diferentes comorbidades, que causam prejuízos substanciais, repercutindo de forma negativa ao longo da vida. Um exemplo são os Transtornos Específicos da Aprendizagem (TEA), caracterizados pela presença de dificuldades específicas na leitura, na escrita e na matemática que podem interferir no desenvolvimento educacional, resultando em elevadas taxas de evasão escolar e por conseguinte, altas taxas de desemprego. O insucesso acadêmico é comum ao TDAH e ao TEA, havendo indícios de ser mais grave quando estes são comórbidos. Apesar da associação frequente entre TDAH e TEA, poucos estudos têm abordado tal comorbidade durante a idade adulta. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo é investigar em que extensão o prejuízo acadêmico de adultos com TDAH pode ser explicado pela comorbidade com o TEA. A avaliação para TEA foi realizada por uma psicopedagoga em 53 adultos que apresentavam TDAH, previamente avaliados no Programa de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, com um protocolo especificamente delineado conforme critérios diagnósticos especificados pelo DSM-5. Portadores e não portadores de TEA foram comparados quanto às características sociodemográficas, gravidade do TDAH e outras comorbidades frequentes. A presença de TEA foi associada a baixas taxas de conclusão da graduação universitária (P = 0,016). Os dados indicam que a sobreposição do TEA ao TDAH pode ser responsável por uma parcela substancial do prejuízo acadêmico presente no TDAH, levando à necessidade de mais estudos a fim de confirmar ou não esta importante observação. / Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity, causing significant impairments in individuals' lives from childhood to adulthood. Patients with ADHD may present different comorbidities, which cause substantial damage, negatively impacting throughout life. One example is Specific Learning Disorders (SLD), characterized by the presence of specific difficulties in reading, writing and mathematics that may interfere with educational development, resulting in high rates of school dropout and, therefore, high unemployment rates. Academic failure is common to ADHD and SLD, with indications of being more severe when these are comorbid. Despite the frequent association between ADHD and SLD, few studies have addressed such comorbidity during adulthood. Thus, the goal of the present study is to investigate up to what extent the academic loss on adults with ADHD can be explained by the comorbidity with SLD. The evaluation for SLD was performed by a psychopedagogue in 53 adults who presented ADHD, previously evaluated in the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre's Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Program, with a specific delineated protocol and according to diagnostic criteria specified by DSM-5 and were compared for sociodemographic characteristics, severity of ADHD and other frequent comorbidities. The presence of ADHD was associated with low graduation rates (P = 0.016). The data indicate that SLD overlapping with ADHD may be responsible for a substantial portion of the academic impairment present in ADHD, leading to the need for further studies to confirm this important observation.

O Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade (TDAH) é caracterizado por sintomas de desatenção e/ou hiperatividade e impulsividade, causando prejuízos significativos na vida dos indivíduos desde a infância até a vida adulta. Pacientes com TDAH podem apresentar diferentes comorbidades, que causam prejuízos substanciais, repercutindo de forma negativa ao longo da vida. Um exemplo são os Transtornos Específicos da Aprendizagem (TEA), caracterizados pela presença de dificuldades específicas na leitura, na escrita e na matemática que podem interferir no desenvolvimento educacional, resultando em elevadas taxas de evasão escolar e por conseguinte, altas taxas de desemprego. O insucesso acadêmico é comum ao TDAH e ao TEA, havendo indícios de ser mais grave quando estes são comórbidos. Apesar da associação frequente entre TDAH e TEA, poucos estudos têm abordado tal comorbidade durante a idade adulta. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo é investigar em que extensão o prejuízo acadêmico de adultos com TDAH pode ser explicado pela comorbidade com o TEA. A avaliação para TEA foi realizada por uma psicopedagoga em 53 adultos que apresentavam TDAH, previamente avaliados no Programa de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, com um protocolo especificamente delineado conforme critérios diagnósticos especificados pelo DSM-5. Portadores e não portadores de TEA foram comparados quanto às características sociodemográficas, gravidade do TDAH e outras comorbidades frequentes. A presença de TEA foi associada a baixas taxas de conclusão da graduação universitária (P = 0,016). Os dados indicam que a sobreposição do TEA ao TDAH pode ser responsável por uma parcela substancial do prejuízo acadêmico presente no TDAH, levando à necessidade de mais estudos a fim de confirmar ou não esta importante observação. / Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity, causing significant impairments in individuals' lives from childhood to adulthood. Patients with ADHD may present different comorbidities, which cause substantial damage, negatively impacting throughout life. One example is Specific Learning Disorders (SLD), characterized by the presence of specific difficulties in reading, writing and mathematics that may interfere with educational development, resulting in high rates of school dropout and, therefore, high unemployment rates. Academic failure is common to ADHD and SLD, with indications of being more severe when these are comorbid. Despite the frequent association between ADHD and SLD, few studies have addressed such comorbidity during adulthood. Thus, the goal of the present study is to investigate up to what extent the academic loss on adults with ADHD can be explained by the comorbidity with SLD. The evaluation for SLD was performed by a psychopedagogue in 53 adults who presented ADHD, previously evaluated in the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre's Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Program, with a specific delineated protocol and according to diagnostic criteria specified by DSM-5 and were compared for sociodemographic characteristics, severity of ADHD and other frequent comorbidities. The presence of ADHD was associated with low graduation rates (P = 0.016). The data indicate that SLD overlapping with ADHD may be responsible for a substantial portion of the academic impairment present in ADHD, leading to the need for further studies to confirm this important observation.