Thesis advisor: Peter Skerry / This thesis is a further study of Peter Skerry’s 2011 article, “the Muslim-American Muddle,” in which he argues that not only non-Muslim Americans are worrying about Muslims’ loyalty issue due to the fear of radical Islamism and terrorism, but also Muslims are confused. My basic argument is that Muslims are still suffering from their muddled loyalty. It is not because they are disloyal but because, in light of Grodzins, their organizations guide them in different directions which are not always en route to national loyalty as non-Muslims expect. Inspired by Morton Grodzins’s theory on social structure and national loyalty in liberal democracies and James Q. Wilson’s insightful study on political organizations, this research has sought to understand the Muslim muddle with an in-depth inquiry and examination on one of the most common and important Islamic organizations—Islamic centers and mosques with an ethnographical method. The evidence of this thesis was collected between April 2016 and December 2017. In fact, I almost visited every mosque in Massachusetts. However, I was not always lucky to build strong connections with many centers for various reasons. In this thesis, I only select those mosques that I had visited more than three times. And I try my best to interview as many leaders as possible. I also manage to keep a geographical and sectarian balance in my sample. I hope to cover all types of mosques in Boston area. My findings are interesting, though of course often confusing and may contradicting with each other but I am duty-bound to report them even if it may had negative impact on the generalization power of my argument. I find that Islamic centers have different goals and offer different incentives to overcome collective actions problems. Both solidarity and political engagement are valued by Islamic centers in general, but individual organizations have different preferences which are results of divergent immigrant experiences. So the organizational aspect of Muslims community is fragmented. However, the increasing external political pressure in the post 9/11 period did not overcome the problem but aggravated it by simply empowering purposive mosques like ISBCC in public sphere. / Thesis (MA) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Political Science.

Dans les pays méditerranéens, l’agriculture en lien avec la ville connait des dynamiques variées, entre déclin et renouveau. Au Liban, les espaces agricoles sont de faible étendue, et limités par un relief escarpé. Le pays souffre également de politiques faibles d’aménagement qui n’accordent pas d’importance à l’agriculture urbaine. Pourtant, des formes agricoles persistent en ville. Dans cette thèse nous lisons l’agriculture en lien avec la ville au prisme d’un droit spécifique au monde arabe, le waqf. Nous partons d’une hypothèse qui voit sur les propriétés dotées d’un waqf une possibilité de maintien ou même de développement de l’agriculture de la région beyrouthine. Adoptant une approche multiscalaire, nous examinons l’agriculture sur le waqf au niveau de sites mais également d’exploitations agricoles, et dressons une géographie foncière des logiques agricoles observables dans la région beyrouthine.Selon nos résultats, les waqf sont assez présents dans l’agglomération beyrouthine. Les waqf agricoles présentent une meilleure résistance face à l’urbanisation -que les terres privées- lorsqu’ils sont associés à des couvents situés dans le périurbain de Beyrouth. Si l’objectif du waqf est l’immobilisation de biens dont les revenus doivent servir des actions pieuses, il en existe différents types au Liban : familial, caritatif, mais aussi religieux chez les chrétiens dont les revenus servent à soutenir les serviteurs de l’Eglise et l’accomplissement d’actes religieux. Quant à leur acquisition, la recherche a permis de distinguer deux discours : celui de religieux qui parlent surtout de waqf achetés, et le second, celui de laïcs, qui lient les acquisitions à d’anciens dons de terres. La gestion de waqf communautaires, majoritaires dans la zone d’étude, diffère selon les confessions religieuses présentes au Liban : elle est centralisée chez les grecs-orthodoxes, les sunnites et les catholiques dans le cas des waqf d’églises, et décentralisée chez les chiites et les catholiques lorsqu’il s’agit de waqf de couvents. Si la location et le métayage agricoles sont possibles sur le waqf, ils sont régis par des contrats s’étalant sur 3, 6, 9 ans chez les catholiques et variant selon le projet agricole chez les orthodoxes, ce qui confère une plus grande sécurité foncière aux exploitations agricoles que celle procurée par les terres privées louées (contrats annuels). Sur le waqf diverses formes agricoles se déploient : maraîchage, arboriculture, élevage et transformation (faire-valoir direct par des religieux), mais aussi des cultures hydroponiques, des pépinières et des cultures spéciales (faire-valoir indirect), alors que sur les terres privées nous retrouvons du maraîchage et de plus en plus de pépinières. Les logiques agricoles identifiées montrent un regain agricole sur les waqf empruntant des trajectoires différentes et entretenant des liens divers à la ville.Finalement, les waqf, malgré leur vocation sociale, n’apparaissent pas comme des communs, ni comme des propriétés privées. Ils sont plutôt mus par des logiques communautaires qui leur sont propres. / In the Mediterranean countries, agriculture linked to city knows various dynamics, between renewal and decline. In Lebanon, agriculture extends over small surface areas and is limited by steep terrain. Moreover, the country suffers from weak planning policies that do not address its agriculture, especially that found in urban contexts. Yet, agriculture persists in the city. In this thesis, we explore agriculture linked to the city in the light of a right that is specific to the Arab region, the waqf. We depart from the following hypothesis: waqf properties allow to maintain, if not to develop, agriculture related to the city. Adopting a multiscale approach, we examine agriculture on waqf at the level of sites, as well as production units, and draw a geography, rather a land geography based on agricultural actors’ logic or logiques agricoles in french.According to our results, waqf lands are quite present in the Beirut region. Agricultural waqf are more resilient- than private lands- to urbanization, especially when found on convent sites located in the peri-urban area of Beirut. If the objective underlying the constitution of a waqf is the immobilization of goods for usages generating revenues for pious actions, still we can distinguish different types of waqf: family, charitable but also religious waqf, especially Christian religious waqf, whose income is used to support the servants of the Church and the fulfillment of religious actions. Management of community waqf, abundant in the study area, differs among religious communities: it is centralized among Greek-orthodox, Sunnis and Catholics in the case of church waqf, and decentralized among Shiites and Catholics in the case of convent waqf. If agricultural leasing and sharecropping are possible on waqf lands, they are ruled by contracts extending over 3, 6, 9 years among Catholics, and varying according to the agricultural project among the Orthodox, which grants a greater land security than which found on private lands (annually renewed contracts). Various agricultural forms can be found on waqf: market gardening, fruit trees, breeding and processing (direct tenure by clergymen) but also hydroponics, nurseries and special crops (indirect tenure of lands, leasing), whereas on private lands we find market gardening and more and more nurseries. Identified agricultural logics show a revival of agriculture on waqf lands borrowing different trajectories and maintaining various links to the city.Finally, the waqf, despite their social vocation, do not appear as commons nor as private properties. They are rather driven by their own communitarian logic.

Devenir musulman en France c’est rejoindre un groupe de croyants dont le terme usuel de « communauté » peine à décrire la fragmentation et le caractère diversifié. Comme pour tout converti, celui qui rejoint l’islam se trouve soumis à un conflit de loyauté et de légitimation. Mais cela prend dans l’objet qui nous occupe une ampleur particulière en raison de l’imagerie négative fréquemment associée à l’islam et de l’âpreté des débats qu’il suscite : à la trahison des origines s’ajoute celle des valeurs et des idéaux. Les récents événements de l’actualité, en particulier ceux liés à la montée en puissance depuis quelques années du djihadisme militarisé représenté par Daesh, dont les effets se font sentir jusqu’en France, saturent l’espace des médias et placent le converti en posture particulièrement délicate (Roy, 2016). Notre recherche propose une approche de la conversion religieuse en termes de processus, en analysant les trajectoires de vie des convertis, en définissant un « avant » et un « après », afin de rendre visible l’articulation complexe entre les convertis et leur environnement, entre l’intime et l’institutionnel. Nous décrivons un cheminement qui mène à la conversion, en tentant d’appréhender l’initiation à l’islam par le converti, mais aussi l’apprentissage des pratiques religieuses et sociales qui aboutissent à la publicisation du choix. D’autre part, nous analysons la construction d’une appartenance à la communauté d’accueil via un mode de socialisation qui prend des formes différentes, en lien avec le groupe religieux choisi ; enfin, nous étudions la rhétorique des convertis destinée à affirmer la légitimité de leur conversion. / Becoming a Muslim in France means joining a group of believers usually designated by the term “community” which struggles to describe its often fragmentary and diverse nature. The convert himself has to confront to these contradictions: he is exposed to the representations of a community supposedly homogeneous and to the preconceptions built through ‘‘common sense”, but also with the objective and plural reality unveiled. Like any kind of converts, those who join Islam are subject to a conflict of loyalty and legitimacy. The recent events, especially those related to the rise in recent years of the militarized jihadism represented by Daesh, which effects have reached as far as France, have constantly been under public and mediatic attention and place the convert in a position of uneasiness (Roy, 2016). The conversion to Islam is thus an object of study and debate often passionate and crossed by contradictions. Our research argues an approach of religious conversion in terms of processes, analyzing the life trajectories of converts, defining a "before" and an "after" in order to make visible the complex articulation between the converts and their environment, between the private and the public sphere. We describe a quest that leads to conversion, trying to grasp the initiation to Islam by the convert, but also the initiation to the religious and social practices that turn their choice into facts. On another hand, we analyze how a convert ends up belonging to the community through different modes of socialization, in connection with the chosen religious group. Finally, we study the rhetoric of the converts which aims at strengthening the legitimacy of the act of conversion.

Inspired by one of my daughters, Rachel Tam, and her journeys through motherhood while pursuing an MBA at Brigham Young University, this study was conceived from observing her struggle to balance academic responsibilities, motherhood, being a wife, and prenatal care. Her experience highlighted the significance of self-directed physical activity (PA) for young mothers pursuing higher education in a religious institution. This study explores the dynamics of PA, motivation, and well-being among 264 college-attending mothers from Brigham Young University Provo and BYU-Pathway Worldwide. These participants were selected from an online survey pool of over 1,500 female student respondents. All mothers in the study have at least one biological child living with them at least half of the time and provided insights through 36 tailored questions. The research is grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT). It utilized the Godin Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire (GSLTPAQ) to assess activity levels, the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 (BREQ-2) for motivational regulation, and the World Health Organization Five Well-Being Index (WHO-5) to measure well-being. The vast majority of participants--over 98% affiliated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (The Church), predominantly married freshmen or graduate students, about 75% in their twenties and thirties with young children under 6--demonstrate a notable dedication to physical activity (PA). This dedication surpasses both the average engagement levels of general college female students nationwide and the U.S. PA guidelines. This robust commitment is largely driven by a modest level of intrinsic motivation, potentially correlated with adherence to BYU's health code, the Word of Wisdom, and personal beliefs. Despite facing challenges in balancing academic responsibilities and parenting duties, over 61% of these mothers maintain moderate overall well-being. The motivation analysis reveals an SDT simplex pattern, indicating a significant, positive, but low correlation between intrinsic motivation and enhanced life quality through active PA participation. This suggests that various unique group factors may be associated with the expected SDT relationship between PA, intrinsic motivation, and well-being.

Dans un contexte européen minoritaire et un cadre de séparation des Églises et de l'État, les institutions islamiques, mosquée et école coranique, sont des agents de transmission religieuse précieux. Pour appréhender ce cadre institutionnel spécifique, les contextes historiques et sociopolitiques des terrains français (loi 1905 et historicité de l'immigration maghrébine) et bulgare (conquête ottomane et régime communiste) sont examinés au regard de l'offre d'instruction religieuse institutionnelle. Mais l'organisation de l'apprentissage religieux institutionnel ne se réalise qu'en interaction avec l'environnement familial. L'inculcation de savoirs dogmatiques, pratiques et de l'éthique réalisée par des dispositifs mimétiques et des stratégies d'incitation, permet de pouvoir socialement dire et faire le croire. L'usage des registres du corps et des émotions comme mode d'expression de la construction d'une relation à Dieu permet au croyant d'exprimer socialement et de manière personnelle le croire, au-delà d'un savoir dogmatique. Le croire se construit comme un parcours où la construction du soi passe à la construction pour soi. Les fluctuations du croire qui interviennent dans ce parcours relèvent de la projection du soi. Cette étude des processus d'apprentissage permet de faire ressortir l'articulation entre dogme, pratiques et éthique comme se répondant en permanence et se manifestant socialement comme des savoirs : savoir-faire, savoir-dire et savoir-ressentir acquis au quotidien. Les notions telles que la pratique religieuse et le croire sont interrogées et le concept d'apprentissage examiné. Ce thème constitue aussi une anthropologie de l'enfance encore peu exploitée. / The main Islamic institutions Mosques and Koranic schools serve as valuable transmission mechanisms in a context where Islam is a minority religion in Europe and church and state have in any case grown apart. In order to understand this institutional framework, the historical and socio-political contexts of both France and Bulgaria are examined with respect to the institutional religious education 'offering'. But institutional religious learning is achieved only in interaction with the family environment. The inculcation of dogmatic and practical skills, and of an ethical framework which allows believers, socially, to speak of and demonstrate their faith through mimetic devices and incitement strategies. The use of body and emotion as a medium for the expression of the relationship constructed with God, to express socially and personally the faith, extends beyond purely dogmatic knowledge. Faith becomes a pathway, whereby self-construction gives way to a construction for oneself. Along this pathway, fluctuations in the degree of belief are a function of self-projection. The study of these learning processes reveals the connection between dogma, practice and ethics, all of which interact continuously and which, socially, manifest themselves as 'skills': speaking, doing and feeling skills, that are acquired through everyday life.This research brings to light the processes by which the Islamic faith is constructed socially. It also explains how Islamic beliefs come to be internalised and expressed. The study examines notions such as religious practice and faith. This narrative also represents an anthropology of childhood that has not yet received much academic attention.

Entre os inúmeros personagens criados e eternizados por Eça de Queirós ao longo de sua produção, o diabo talvez seja aquele que menos recebeu atenção das análises críticas voltadas às obras do escritor. Longe de ser uma personagem dita marginal, pois está presente desde os primeiros textos até as obras derradeiras desenvolvidas por Eça, o diabo parece mesmo ter sido preterido por suas figurações quase sempre pequenas e/ou supostamente despretensiosas. Pretendemos neste trabalho volver o olhar para essa personagem na obra de Eça de Queirós, confirmando nossa hipótese de que com poucas, mas sistemáticas aparições, Satanás desempenha um papel fundamental na produção do escritor, especialmente quando ele procura fazer menções a conceitos do individualismo moderno e criticar a Instituição religiosa oficial de Portugal, a Igreja Católica, bem como tudo o que estivesse voltado a ela e à sua atuação no país. Principiamos averiguando quem é Satanás, como este mito floresceu e, principalmente, o papel da Igreja em sua criação, formalização e atualização ao longo dos séculos até nossos dias. Posteriormente, para compreendermos a concepção do diabo que Eça veicula em suas obras, dedicamos atenção ao diabo literário, ou seja, às diversas formas e maneiras pelas quais o demônio figurará na literatura, principalmente por intermédio do mito fáustico e dos sentidos que autores da literatura francesa dos séculos XVIII e XIX, da qual Eça foi leitor, atribuíram-lhe, quase sempre utilizando-o como paladino do pensamento individualista. Ainda, antes de partirmos para nossa leitura crítica, analisaremos o diabo da religiosidade popular portuguesa, o qual parece ter sido também fonte de inspiração para Eça compor seus diabos, devido a uma série de valores controversos agregados à figura demoníaca por essa forma peculiar de viver a religião. Finalmente, na última parte do trabalho, passaremos às análises das figurações do diabo em obras das diversas fases da produção do escritor, indo dos textos das Prosas Bárbaras, passando pelos diabos de O Mandarim e A Relíquia até chegarmos aos diabos das Vidas de Santos. Concluiremos nosso trabalho confirmando a hipótese de que o diabo não é somente mais uma personagem secundária menor veiculada por Eça de Queirós, mas sim uma das principais, quando os assuntos desenvolvidos em seus textos foram as apologias voltadas ao individualismo moderno e a permanente crítica direcionada à Instituição religiosa. / Among the innumerous characters created and eternalized by Eça de Queirós all along his production, the devil perhaps is the one who less received attention from the critical analysis of the writers works. Far from being called a marginal character, for it is present since the early texts till the last works developed by Eça, the devil really seems to have been omitted by his mostly small and/or supposedly unpretentious figurations. In this work we intend to turn our eyes to this character in Eça de Queirós work, confirming our hypothesis that with few, but systematic appearances, Satan plays a fundamental role in the writers production, especially when he tries to mention concepts of modern individualism and to criticize the official religious institution of Portugal, the Catholic Church, as well as everything which was related to it and to its actuation in the country. We start by verifying who Satan is, how this myth has blossomed, and mainly, the role of the church in his creation, formalization and actuation all along the centuries until nowadays. Subsequently, to comprehend the conception of the devil that Eça conducts in his works, we dedicate our attention to the literary devil, or else, to the several forms and ways in which the demon will feature in literature, mainly by intermediate of the Faustian myth and the senses which authors from the French literature in the XVIII and XIX centuries, from which Eça was a reader, attributed to him, mostly using him as a paladin of the individualist thought. Yet, before leaving for our critical reading, we will analyze the devil of the Portuguese popular religiosity, that seems also to have been source of inspiration for Eça to build up his devils, due to a series of controversial values aggregated to the demoniac picture by this peculiar way of living the religion. Finally, in the last part of the work, we will go to the analysis of the devils figurations in the works of the several phases of the writers production, starting with the texts of Prosas Bárbaras, going to the devils of O Mandarim e A Relíquia till we get to the devils of Vidas de Santos. We will conclude our work confirming the hypothesis that the devil is not only another minor secondary character conducted by Eça de Queirós, but one of the main ones, when the subjects developed in his texts were the apologies regarding to the modern individualism and the permanent criticism directed to the Religious Institution.

Entre os inúmeros personagens criados e eternizados por Eça de Queirós ao longo de sua produção, o diabo talvez seja aquele que menos recebeu atenção das análises críticas voltadas às obras do escritor. Longe de ser uma personagem dita marginal, pois está presente desde os primeiros textos até as obras derradeiras desenvolvidas por Eça, o diabo parece mesmo ter sido preterido por suas figurações quase sempre pequenas e/ou supostamente despretensiosas. Pretendemos neste trabalho volver o olhar para essa personagem na obra de Eça de Queirós, confirmando nossa hipótese de que com poucas, mas sistemáticas aparições, Satanás desempenha um papel fundamental na produção do escritor, especialmente quando ele procura fazer menções a conceitos do individualismo moderno e criticar a Instituição religiosa oficial de Portugal, a Igreja Católica, bem como tudo o que estivesse voltado a ela e à sua atuação no país. Principiamos averiguando quem é Satanás, como este mito floresceu e, principalmente, o papel da Igreja em sua criação, formalização e atualização ao longo dos séculos até nossos dias. Posteriormente, para compreendermos a concepção do diabo que Eça veicula em suas obras, dedicamos atenção ao diabo literário, ou seja, às diversas formas e maneiras pelas quais o demônio figurará na literatura, principalmente por intermédio do mito fáustico e dos sentidos que autores da literatura francesa dos séculos XVIII e XIX, da qual Eça foi leitor, atribuíram-lhe, quase sempre utilizando-o como paladino do pensamento individualista. Ainda, antes de partirmos para nossa leitura crítica, analisaremos o diabo da religiosidade popular portuguesa, o qual parece ter sido também fonte de inspiração para Eça compor seus diabos, devido a uma série de valores controversos agregados à figura demoníaca por essa forma peculiar de viver a religião. Finalmente, na última parte do trabalho, passaremos às análises das figurações do diabo em obras das diversas fases da produção do escritor, indo dos textos das Prosas Bárbaras, passando pelos diabos de O Mandarim e A Relíquia até chegarmos aos diabos das Vidas de Santos. Concluiremos nosso trabalho confirmando a hipótese de que o diabo não é somente mais uma personagem secundária menor veiculada por Eça de Queirós, mas sim uma das principais, quando os assuntos desenvolvidos em seus textos foram as apologias voltadas ao individualismo moderno e a permanente crítica direcionada à Instituição religiosa. / Among the innumerous characters created and eternalized by Eça de Queirós all along his production, the devil perhaps is the one who less received attention from the critical analysis of the writers works. Far from being called a marginal character, for it is present since the early texts till the last works developed by Eça, the devil really seems to have been omitted by his mostly small and/or supposedly unpretentious figurations. In this work we intend to turn our eyes to this character in Eça de Queirós work, confirming our hypothesis that with few, but systematic appearances, Satan plays a fundamental role in the writers production, especially when he tries to mention concepts of modern individualism and to criticize the official religious institution of Portugal, the Catholic Church, as well as everything which was related to it and to its actuation in the country. We start by verifying who Satan is, how this myth has blossomed, and mainly, the role of the church in his creation, formalization and actuation all along the centuries until nowadays. Subsequently, to comprehend the conception of the devil that Eça conducts in his works, we dedicate our attention to the literary devil, or else, to the several forms and ways in which the demon will feature in literature, mainly by intermediate of the Faustian myth and the senses which authors from the French literature in the XVIII and XIX centuries, from which Eça was a reader, attributed to him, mostly using him as a paladin of the individualist thought. Yet, before leaving for our critical reading, we will analyze the devil of the Portuguese popular religiosity, that seems also to have been source of inspiration for Eça to build up his devils, due to a series of controversial values aggregated to the demoniac picture by this peculiar way of living the religion. Finally, in the last part of the work, we will go to the analysis of the devils figurations in the works of the several phases of the writers production, starting with the texts of Prosas Bárbaras, going to the devils of O Mandarim e A Relíquia till we get to the devils of Vidas de Santos. We will conclude our work confirming the hypothesis that the devil is not only another minor secondary character conducted by Eça de Queirós, but one of the main ones, when the subjects developed in his texts were the apologies regarding to the modern individualism and the permanent criticism directed to the Religious Institution.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-25T19:20:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Viviane Cristina Candido.pdf: 2573073 bytes, checksum: a7386cb9b1201ebc43e4fda03e3bf68d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-12-01 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Objective: To propose an epistemology which establishes this subject, entailed to Religion Sciences, as an outside area, capable to offer theorical indication to the educational practice, considering the common object of study religion. Justification: Religious Teaching is an integrant part of the curriculum of basic education schools. Established as a knowledgement area, its pedagogical practice is a bearing of indefiniteness and ambiguousness related to its nature and purpose, as a result of the lack of specific theorical indications of the religious study field. Hypothesis: Religious Teaching finality is to enable to scholars an enlargement of their world view trough a biggest comprehension of religious issues, from a religion study which contributes to the comprehension and experience of the authentically human; the tension among both religious institution and experience as a methodology to religion study; an epistemology of the controversy based on the philosophy of the religion, in the ambit of Religion Sciences. Theoretical-methodological aspects and obtained result: This research let evident the ambient of controversies in which is insert Religious Teaching and its concepts related in the field of Sciences and postulated the epistemology of the controversy, based on Franz Rosenzweig thought, as a referential to the pedagogical practice of Religious Teaching. It also displayed that, once what is intended is the dialog among reason and religious reason inside school space/time, in the ambit of Religion Sciences, is the area which supports this epistemology. Using the own Rosenzweig method assigned the tension among both religious institution and experience as the methodology to the religion study in the Religious Teaching classes / Objetivo: Propor uma epistemologia que fundamente essa disciplina, vinculada às Ciências da Religião, como uma área externa, capaz de oferecer referenciais teóricos para a prática educacional, considerando o objeto de estudo comum a religião. Justificativa: O ER - Ensino Religioso é parte integrante do currículo das escolas de educação básica. Estabelecido como área de conhecimento, sua prática pedagógica é portadora de indefinições e ambigüidades relativas à sua natureza e finalidade, resultado da falta de referenciais teóricos específicos do campo de estudo da religião. Hipóteses: A finalidade do ER é possibilitar aos educandos uma ampliação de sua visão de mundo pela maior compreensão das questões religiosas, a partir de um estudo da religião que colabore para a compreensão e vivência do autenticamente humano; a tensão entre instituição e experiência religiosas como metodologia para o estudo da religião; uma epistemologia da controvérsia alicerçada na Filosofia da Religião, no âmbito das Ciências da Religião. Aspectos teórico-metodológicos e resultado obtido: Esta pesquisa evidenciou o ambiente de controvérsias em que está inserido o ER e seus conceitos relacionados no campo das Ciências e postulou a epistemologia da controvérsia, fundamentada no pensamento de Franz Rosenzweig, como referencial para a prática pedagógica do ER. Demonstrou ainda que, uma vez que o que se pretende é o diálogo entre a razão e a razão religiosa no espaço/tempo da escola, a Filosofia da Religião, no âmbito das Ciências da Religião, é a área que sustenta essa epistemologia. Utilizando o próprio método Rosenzweig apontou a tensão entre instituição e experiência religiosas como metodologia para o estudo da religião nas aulas de Ensino Religioso

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La taxation a toujours été un enjeu d’envergure pour notre société. Dès le début du XVIII siècle, les institutions religieuses se réclamaient d’une exemption de taxes en contrepartie des nombreux services sociaux qu’elles rendaient. Basée sur des principes d’équité, l’imposition d’une taxe permet de défrayer les dépenses communes de notre société. Introduite localement autour des années 1876, la fiscalité municipale a toujours reconnu que les biens de l’État ne pouvaient être l’objet d’une quelconque taxation puisque bénéficiant à tous. De la même manière, les biens des institutions religieuses ont également eu le même privilège depuis le début de l’imposition de la taxe ou presque. Cet historique n’est pas sans explication! En effet, nos Églises participaient activement au développement de la société par le biais de services tant sociaux (aide aux plus démunis, santé, registre de l’état civil, etc.) qu’éducationnels (écoles, enseignements religieux…). Qu’en est-il aujourd’hui? Est-il toujours pertinent de maintenir ces exemptions alors que l’État a pris en main l’éducation, la santé, etc. Alors que les églises catholiques sont cédées, une à une, aux municipalités faute de financement et de disciples, que notre gouvernement québécois tend vers une neutralité pour faire place à un pluralisme religieux grandissant, que nos municipalités cherchent de nouvelles sources de financement, pourquoi conserver ce régime d’exemptions qui semble aller à l’encontre de toutes les tendances de la société? C’est précisément ce que nous étudierons dans ce mémoire. En résumé, l’objet de ce mémoire est d’identifier l’origine de ces exemptions de taxes foncières municipales et d’analyser de manière objective l’évolution juridique de celles-ci. Le tout, pour comprendre les motifs qui soutiennent leur maintien, encore aujourd’hui, dans le but de déterminer leur pertinence ou non lors d’une nouvelle législation. Ainsi, la première partie met donc en contexte l’exemption foncière pour les institutions religieuses au Québec. Elle traite d’abord de la relation entre l’État et la religion, puis présente les principaux impacts fiscaux du régime d’exemption de taxes foncières sur les municipalités. La seconde partie, quant à elle, établit le cadre juridique entourant ce régime. Elle aborde le régime fiscal applicable aux exemptions de taxes foncières, en s’attardant principalement aux articles relatifs aux institutions religieuses et aux presbytères. Ensuite, elle présente des motifs au soutien du maintien ou non du régime d’exemption. Et puis, la troisième partie propose des pistes de solution pour faire évoluer juridiquement ces exemptions dans le respect des attentes de notre société québécoise. Pour finalement, conclure sur une unique destinée de celles-ci. / Taxation has always been a major issue for our society. By the early eighteenth century, religious institutions claimed a tax exemption in exchange for the many social services they rendered. Based on principles of equity, the imposition of a tax makes it possible to defray the common expenses of our society. Introduced locally in the 1876, municipal taxation has always recognized that state property could not be the subject of any taxation since benefiting all. In the same way, the property of religious institutions has also had the same privilege since the beginning of the imposition of the tax or almost. This history is not without explanation! Indeed, our churches were actively involved in the development of society through both social services (assistance to the poor, health, registry of civil status, etc.) and educational (schools, religious teachings ...). What about today? Is it still relevant to maintain these exemptions while the state has taken over education, health, etc.? While Catholic churches are handed over one by one to municipalities for lack of funding and disciples, that our Quebec government is moving towards neutrality to make room for growing religious pluralism, that our municipalities are looking for new sources of funding, why keep this system of exemptions that seems to go against all trends in society? This is precisely what we will study in this memoir. In summary, the purpose of this brief is to identify the source of these exemptions from municipal property taxes and to analyze objectively their legal evolution. All, to understand the reasons that support their maintenance, even today, in order to determine their relevance or not in a new legislation. Thus, the first part puts into context the land exemption for religious institutions in Quebec. It first covers the relationship between the state and religion, then presents the main tax impacts of the property tax exemption system on municipalities. The second part establishes the legal framework surrounding this scheme. It discusses the tax regime applicable to property tax exemptions, focusing mainly on articles relating to religious institutions and presbyteries. Then, it presents reasons in support of whether or not to maintain the exemption scheme. And then, the third part proposes possible solutions to legally evolve these exemptions in accordance with the expectations of our Quebec society. Finally, to conclude on a unique destiny of these.