Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-20T14:06:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 tese_taciane_finatto.pdf: 5834731 bytes, checksum: e10f781234d54582cc17a9b8dff16c53 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-27 / Iron toxicity in plants is associated with the presence of large concentrations of reduced iron (Fe2+) in the soil solution, which occurs in flooded soils and affects rice plants grown under this condition. Symptoms of iron toxicity involve oxidative stress in leaves, as a response to excessive Fe2+ absorption by the roots. The responses of plants to stress conditions include stimulus perception, signal transduction and gene transcription activation. Besides gene expression, LTR (Long Terminal Repeat) retrotransposons represent ca. 22% of the rice genome, they can be transcriptionally activated under stress, and they can alter the expression of adjacent genes (e.g. due to alterations in chromatin structure). This study aimed to identify differentially expressed genes and LTR retrotransposons in leaves of 18-day-old rice seedlings (Oryza sativa ssp. japonica cv. Nipponbare) after four days of iron excess exposure. They were identified a differential expression of genes and LTR retrotransposons in rice exposed to iron excess using a microarray approach. Total RNA was extracted from leaves of 18-day-old rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L. ssp japonica cv. Nipponbare) after four days of cultivation in nutrient solution with iron excess (7 mM of FeSO47H2O) and in a control solution. The hybridization was performed with cDNA and rice transposome array v. 2.0 microarray (Roche/NimbleGen technology, an improvement of v.1.0, Picault et al., 2009). Data from gene expression was analyzed by the Bayesian t-test with BH adjustment method. Gene annotation, gene ontology, and LTR retrotransposon identification were performed at RAP-DB (Rice Annotation Project Database, build 5), and microarray results were validated by RT-qPCR. Considering log2 FC (log2-fold-change) ≤ -1 as underexpression and ≥ 1 as overexpression (p-values ≤ 0.05), 44 down-regulated and 1,572 up-regulated genes with described function were identified. Down-regulated genes were related to a wide range of functions and no gene family could be highlighted. Among the up-regulated genes, 166 were transcription factors, the most representative belonging to the Zinc finger RING/FYVE/PHD-type family (22) and WRKY family (19); other genes were from the kinase family, participating in biological processes of protein amino acid phosphorylation (86); had molecular function of iron ion binding (56); were involved in response to oxidative stress (scavenging of reactive oxygen species) (26); had molecular function of transport activity (84), including four genes related to heavy metal transport/detoxification and four genes of the multi antimicrobial extrusion protein MATE family; and were involved in the biological process of apoptosis (14), including 10 genes of NB-ARC. Among the up-regulated genes, 435 present at least one cis-regulatory element responsive to abscisic acid (ABA) with significant occurrence (P≤0.05) in its promoter region (1 kbp upstream of the transcription start site). These data indicate that about 28% of the up-regulated genes can be regulated by changing in the ABA content in leaves in response to iron excess. Regarding expression of LTR retrotransposons, 302 were down-regulated (53 Ty1/Copia, 172 Ty3/Gypsy and 77 unclassified), and 4342 up-regulated (466 Ty1/Copia, 2276 Ty3/Gypsy and 1600 unclassified). They were observed a large activity of LTR retrotransposons in response to iron toxicity, and furthermore, they were verified that LTR retrotransposons transcription can extend to 5' and 3' flanking regions. In addition, 16 situations that should up-regulated LTR retrotransposons are located at a very short distance (smaller than 1000 base pairs) in the same chromosome of up-regulated genes suggesting co-transcription, these occurrences are represented by eight where the LTR retrotransposon and the gene have the same sense of transcription (plus); five occurrences with the both with the same sense of transcription (minus) and one occurrence where they have opposite senses. Additionally, two occurrences that in which both, DNA sequences of up-regulated retrotransposon and gene, are overlapped and have the same sense of transcription. / A toxidez por ferro em plantas está associada com a presença de grandes concentrações de ferro (Fe) reduzido (Fe2+) na solução do solo, esta condição pode ocorrer em solos irrigados por inundação. Os sintomas de toxidez por ferro incluem estresse oxidativo nas folhas como resultado do excesso de Fe2+ absorvido pelas raízes, resultando em perdas na produtividade. As respostas das plantas às condições de estresse envolvem a percepção dos estímulos, transdução de sinais e ativação da transcrição gênica. Além da expressão gênica, os LTR retrotransposons (Long Terminal Repeat Retrotransposons) que respresentam cerca de 20% do genoma do arroz, podem ser transcricionalmente ativados em condições de estresse e desta forma, influenciar a expressão de genes adjacentes (por exemplo devido a alterações na estrutura da cromatina). Este estudo teve por objetivo identificar genes e LTR retrotransposons diferencialmente expressos em plântulas de arroz (Oryza sativa ssp. japonica cv. Nipponbare), após quatro dias de exposição ao excesso de ferro em solução nutritiva. A expressão diferencial de genes e LTR retrotransposons foi analisada utilizando a técnica de microarranjo e sua validação foi realizada por meio de RT-qPCR. O RNA total foi extraído de folhas de plântulas de arroz cv. Nipponbare, após quatro dias de cultivo em solução nutritiva adicionada de ferro na concentração de 7 mM (FeSO47H2O) (presença de toxidez) e a condição controle com presença de ferro na concentração de 10 μM. O cDNA fita dupla foi sintetitizado a partir do RNA mensageiro. A hibridização foi realizada entre o cDNA das duas condições em triplicatas biológicas e o microarranjo Rice Transposome Array v. 2.0 (Roche/NimbleGen technology, an improvement of v.1.0, Picault et al., 2009). Os valores de intensidade de cada spot foram normalizados, transformados e comparados pelo teste T Bayesiano. A identificação dos genes e LTR retrotransposons foi realizada de acordo com o banco de dados RAP-DB (Rice Annotation Project Database, build 5). Considerando log2 FC (log2-fold-change) ≤ -1 como subexpressão e ≥ 1 como superexpressão e P≤ 0.05 para ambas condições. Foram identificados 44 genes subexpressos e 1.572 superexpressos com funções descritas. Os genes subexpressos desempenham a uma vasta gama de funções. Entre elas destacam-se: 166 genes que são fatores de transcrição, sendo que os mais representativos pertencem à família Zinc finger RING/FYVE/PHD-type family (22 genes) e WRKY (19 genes); outros genes da família das cinases que participam também da sinalização celular em processos biológicos de fosforilação de aminoácidos nas proteínas (86 genes); outros genes com função molecular de ligação ao íon ferro (56 genes); 26 genes envolvidos na resposta ao estresse oxidativo (scavengers de espécies reativas de oxigênio); 84 genes com função molecular de transporte, incluindo quatro genes relacionados ao transporte e detoxificação de metais pesados e quatro genes da família MATE; 14 genes envolvidos em apoptose, incluindo 10 genes NB-ARC. Entre os genes superexpressos, 435 apresentam pelo menos um elemento regulatório de ação cis responsivo ao ácido abscisico (ABA) com ocorrência significativa (P≤0,05) em sua região promotora (1 kbp a montante do sítio de início da transcrição). Estes dados indicam que cerca de 28% dos genes superexpressos podem ser regulados pelas alterações no conteúdo de ABA nas folhas, em resposta ao estresse por excesso de ferro. Considerando a expressão do LTR retrotransposons, 302 apresentaram subexpressão (53 Ty1/Copia, 172 Ty3/Gypsy e 77 não classificados), e 4.342 apresentaram superexpressão (466 Ty1/Copia, 2276 Ty3/Gypsy e 1600 não classificados). Foi constatada grande atividade transcricional dos LTR retrotransposons em resposta à toxidez por ferro, sendo que a transcrição dos LTR retrotransposons pode se estender às suas regiões flanqueadoras 5 e 3 , além disso foram encontradas 16 ocorrencias em que o LTR retrotransposon e o gene superexpresso estão localizados a uma distância menor do que 1000 pares de bases no mesmo cromossomo, sugerindo co-transcrição entre ambos. Entre as 16 ocorrências, oito em que o LTR retrotransposon e o gene apresentam o mesmo sentido de transcrição (plus); cinco ocorrências com mesmo sentido de transcrição (minus) e uma ocorrência onde LTR retrotrotransposon e gene apresentam sentidos de transcrição opostos. Foram observadas ainda, duas ocorrências em que as sequencias de DNA do LTR retrotransposon e do gene superexpressos estão sobrepostas, e apresentam o mesmo sentido de transcrição.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-20T13:25:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 tese_taciane_finatto.pdf: 5834731 bytes, checksum: e10f781234d54582cc17a9b8dff16c53 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-27 / Iron toxicity in plants is associated with the presence of large concentrations of reduced iron (Fe2+) in the soil solution, which occurs in flooded soils and affects rice plants grown under this condition. Symptoms of iron toxicity involve oxidative stress in leaves, as a response to excessive Fe2+ absorption by the roots. The responses of plants to stress conditions include stimulus perception, signal transduction and gene transcription activation. Besides gene expression, LTR (Long Terminal Repeat) retrotransposons represent ca. 22% of the rice genome, they can be transcriptionally activated under stress, and they can alter the expression of adjacent genes (e.g. due to alterations in chromatin structure). This study aimed to identify differentially expressed genes and LTR retrotransposons in leaves of 18-day-old rice seedlings (Oryza sativa ssp. japonica cv. Nipponbare) after four days of iron excess exposure. They were identified a differential expression of genes and LTR retrotransposons in rice exposed to iron excess using a microarray approach. Total RNA was extracted from leaves of 18-day-old rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L. ssp japonica cv. Nipponbare) after four days of cultivation in nutrient solution with iron excess (7 mM of FeSO47H2O) and in a control solution. The hybridization was performed with cDNA and rice transposome array v. 2.0 microarray (Roche/NimbleGen technology, an improvement of v.1.0, Picault et al., 2009). Data from gene expression was analyzed by the Bayesian t-test with BH adjustment method. Gene annotation, gene ontology, and LTR retrotransposon identification were performed at RAP-DB (Rice Annotation Project Database, build 5), and microarray results were validated by RT-qPCR. Considering log2 FC (log2-fold-change) ≤ -1 as underexpression and ≥ 1 as overexpression (p-values ≤ 0.05), 44 down-regulated and 1,572 up-regulated genes with described function were identified. Down-regulated genes were related to a wide range of functions and no gene family could be highlighted. Among the up-regulated genes, 166 were transcription factors, the most representative belonging to the Zinc finger RING/FYVE/PHD-type family (22) and WRKY family (19); other genes were from the kinase family, participating in biological processes of protein amino acid phosphorylation (86); had molecular function of iron ion binding (56); were involved in response to oxidative stress (scavenging of reactive oxygen species) (26); had molecular function of transport activity (84), including four genes related to heavy metal transport/detoxification and four genes of the multi antimicrobial extrusion protein MATE family; and were involved in the biological process of apoptosis (14), including 10 genes of NB-ARC. Among the up-regulated genes, 435 present at least one cis-regulatory element responsive to abscisic acid (ABA) with significant occurrence (P≤0.05) in its promoter region (1 kbp upstream of the transcription start site). These data indicate that about 28% of the up-regulated genes can be regulated by changing in the ABA content in leaves in response to iron excess. Regarding expression of LTR retrotransposons, 302 were down-regulated (53 Ty1/Copia, 172 Ty3/Gypsy and 77 unclassified), and 4342 up-regulated (466 Ty1/Copia, 2276 Ty3/Gypsy and 1600 unclassified). They were observed a large activity of LTR retrotransposons in response to iron toxicity, and furthermore, they were verified that LTR retrotransposons transcription can extend to 5' and 3' flanking regions. In addition, 16 situations that should up-regulated LTR retrotransposons are located at a very short distance (smaller than 1000 base pairs) in the same chromosome of up-regulated genes suggesting co-transcription, these occurrences are represented by eight where the LTR retrotransposon and the gene have the same sense of transcription (plus); five occurrences with the both with the same sense of transcription (minus) and one occurrence where they have opposite senses. Additionally, two occurrences that in which both, DNA sequences of up-regulated retrotransposon and gene, are overlapped and have the same sense of transcription. / A toxidez por ferro em plantas está associada com a presença de grandes concentrações de ferro (Fe) reduzido (Fe2+) na solução do solo, esta condição pode ocorrer em solos irrigados por inundação. Os sintomas de toxidez por ferro incluem estresse oxidativo nas folhas como resultado do excesso de Fe2+ absorvido pelas raízes, resultando em perdas na produtividade. As respostas das plantas às condições de estresse envolvem a percepção dos estímulos, transdução de sinais e ativação da transcrição gênica. Além da expressão gênica, os LTR retrotransposons (Long Terminal Repeat Retrotransposons) que respresentam cerca de 20% do genoma do arroz, podem ser transcricionalmente ativados em condições de estresse e desta forma, influenciar a expressão de genes adjacentes (por exemplo devido a alterações na estrutura da cromatina). Este estudo teve por objetivo identificar genes e LTR retrotransposons diferencialmente expressos em plântulas de arroz (Oryza sativa ssp. japonica cv. Nipponbare), após quatro dias de exposição ao excesso de ferro em solução nutritiva. A expressão diferencial de genes e LTR retrotransposons foi analisada utilizando a técnica de microarranjo e sua validação foi realizada por meio de RT-qPCR. O RNA total foi extraído de folhas de plântulas de arroz cv. Nipponbare, após quatro dias de cultivo em solução nutritiva adicionada de ferro na concentração de 7 mM (FeSO47H2O) (presença de toxidez) e a condição controle com presença de ferro na concentração de 10 μM. O cDNA fita dupla foi sintetitizado a partir do RNA mensageiro. A hibridização foi realizada entre o cDNA das duas condições em triplicatas biológicas e o microarranjo Rice Transposome Array v. 2.0 (Roche/NimbleGen technology, an improvement of v.1.0, Picault et al., 2009). Os valores de intensidade de cada spot foram normalizados, transformados e comparados pelo teste T Bayesiano. A identificação dos genes e LTR retrotransposons foi realizada de acordo com o banco de dados RAP-DB (Rice Annotation Project Database, build 5). Considerando log2 FC (log2-fold-change) ≤ -1 como subexpressão e ≥ 1 como superexpressão e P≤ 0.05 para ambas condições. Foram identificados 44 genes subexpressos e 1.572 superexpressos com funções descritas. Os genes subexpressos desempenham a uma vasta gama de funções. Entre elas destacam-se: 166 genes que são fatores de transcrição, sendo que os mais representativos pertencem à família Zinc finger RING/FYVE/PHD-type family (22 genes) e WRKY (19 genes); outros genes da família das cinases que participam também da sinalização celular em processos biológicos de fosforilação de aminoácidos nas proteínas (86 genes); outros genes com função molecular de ligação ao íon ferro (56 genes); 26 genes envolvidos na resposta ao estresse oxidativo (scavengers de espécies reativas de oxigênio); 84 genes com função molecular de transporte, incluindo quatro genes relacionados ao transporte e detoxificação de metais pesados e quatro genes da família MATE; 14 genes envolvidos em apoptose, incluindo 10 genes NB-ARC. Entre os genes superexpressos, 435 apresentam pelo menos um elemento regulatório de ação cis responsivo ao ácido abscisico (ABA) com ocorrência significativa (P≤0,05) em sua região promotora (1 kbp a montante do sítio de início da transcrição). Estes dados indicam que cerca de 28% dos genes superexpressos podem ser regulados pelas alterações no conteúdo de ABA nas folhas, em resposta ao estresse por excesso de ferro. Considerando a expressão do LTR retrotransposons, 302 apresentaram subexpressão (53 Ty1/Copia, 172 Ty3/Gypsy e 77 não classificados), e 4.342 apresentaram superexpressão (466 Ty1/Copia, 2276 Ty3/Gypsy e 1600 não classificados). Foi constatada grande atividade transcricional dos LTR retrotransposons em resposta à toxidez por ferro, sendo que a transcrição dos LTR retrotransposons pode se estender às suas regiões flanqueadoras 5 e 3 , além disso foram encontradas 16 ocorrencias em que o LTR retrotransposon e o gene superexpresso estão localizados a uma distância menor do que 1000 pares de bases no mesmo cromossomo, sugerindo co-transcrição entre ambos. Entre as 16 ocorrências, oito em que o LTR retrotransposon e o gene apresentam o mesmo sentido de transcrição (plus); cinco ocorrências com mesmo sentido de transcrição (minus) e uma ocorrência onde LTR retrotrotransposon e gene apresentam sentidos de transcrição opostos. Foram observadas ainda, duas ocorrências em que as sequencias de DNA do LTR retrotransposon e do gene superexpressos estão sobrepostas, e apresentam o mesmo sentido de transcrição.estresse oxidativo (scavengers de espécies reativas de oxigênio); 84 genes com função molecular de transporte, incluindo quatro genes relacionados ao transporte e detoxificação de metais pesados e quatro genes da família MATE; 14 genes envolvidos em apoptose, incluindo 10 genes NB-ARC. Entre os genes superexpressos, 435 apresentam pelo menos um elemento regulatório de ação cis responsivo ao ácido abscisico (ABA) com ocorrência significativa (P≤0,05) em sua região promotora (1 kbp a montante do sítio de início da transcrição). Estes dados indicam que cerca de 28% dos genes superexpressos podem ser regulados pelas alterações no conteúdo de ABA nas folhas, em resposta ao estresse por excesso de ferro. Considerando a expressão do LTR retrotransposons, 302 apresentaram subexpressão (53 Ty1/Copia, 172 Ty3/Gypsy e 77 não classificados), e 4.342 apresentaram superexpressão (466 Ty1/Copia, 2276 Ty3/Gypsy e 1600 não classificados). Foi constatada grande atividade transcricional dos LTR retrotransposons em resposta à toxidez por ferro, sendo que a transcrição dos LTR retrotransposons pode se estender às suas regiões flanqueadoras 5 e 3 , além disso foram encontradas 16 ocorrencias em que o LTR retrotransposon e o gene superexpresso estão localizados a uma distância menor do que 1000 pares de bases no mesmo cromossomo, sugerindo co-transcrição entre ambos. Entre as 16 ocorrências, oito em que o LTR retrotransposon e o gene apresentam o mesmo sentido de transcrição (plus); cinco ocorrências com mesmo sentido de transcrição (minus) e uma ocorrência onde LTR retrotrotransposon e gene apresentam sentidos de transcrição opostos. Foram observadas ainda, duas ocorrências em que as sequencias de DNA do LTR retrotransposon e do gene superexpressos estão sobrepostas, e apresentam o mesmo sentido de transcrição.

Originally 2A was characterised in foot-and-mouth disease virus. Site directed mutagenesis identified a C-terminus consensus motif [D(V/I)ExNPGP] and it is proposed that 2A interacts with the exit tunnel of the ribosome in a way that a specific peptide bond is skipped between the last glycine of 2A and the proline of 2B, thus providing a discontinuity in translation, resulting in release of discrete proteins from one single ORF. 2A was also identified in other picornaviruses, positive, single and double-stranded RNA insect viruses and mammalian rotaviruses. A motif present at the C-terminus of the 2A oligopeptide [D(V/I)ExNPGP] is very highly, though not completely conserved . The sequence upstream of this motif shows, however, no apparent conservation between 2As of different viruses. In this study, extensive site-directed mutagenesis were performed on several 2A sequences and a series of ‘hybrid' 2As comprising different consensus motifs juxtaposed with different upstream contexts were created as part of a detailed analysis of the mechanism of 2A-mediated ribosome stalling. The results demonstrated that a minimal region of twenty to twenty-three amino acids interacts with the exit tunnel of the ribosome to bring about a pause in processivity, alter the peptidyl transferase centre geometry and restrict the ribosome A site via two distinctive stalling mechanisms. Other molecular analyses tested here will require further optimisations or alternative methods: a visual method to explore the dynamics of re-initiation of translation from proline codon, purification of the translation-regulating factors and structural resolution of 2A sequences. Previously, cellular 2As were identified in non-LTR retrotransposons of trypanosomes. It is reported here as part of two other cellular organisms Saccoglossus kowalevskii (acorn worm) and Branchiostoma floridae (amphioxus). In the acorn worm, the nucleotides sequences corresponding to 2A motifs were part of the untranslated genome. In amphioxus, three 2A elements were identified in hypothetical proteins, and at the N-terminus of twenty non-LTR retrotransposons.

Les éléments Alu sont les retrotransposons les plus prolifiques chez l’humain avec plus d’1 million de copies occupant plus de 10% du génome. Afin de contrecarrer l’expansion des rétro-éléments, les organismes ont développés différents mécanismes pour préserver l’intégrité de leurs génomes. Le plus proéminent, également utilisé pour lutter contre la réinsertion d’ADN viral dans le génome hôte, est l’édition de l’ARN. Chez les mammifères, la plus courante est la déamination de l’adénine en inosine catalysée par la famille de protéine ADAR dont Les principales cibles sont les éléments Alu chez l’humain. L’édition des éléments Alu conduit à leur séquestration dans le noyau des cellules, mute leurs promoteurs internes, cible de l’ARN polymérase III (POLIII), et leurs queues poly-A, prévenant ainsi leur future rétrotransposition. Dans la première partie de cette étude, l’analyse de données de séquençage haut-débit révèle que ~40% des éléments Alu sont reconnus par POLIII, qu’ils sont présents en tant que petits ARN dans le cytoplasme et le noyau des cellules, que certain d’entre eux sont associés à la chromatine, et que la transcription des éléments Alu est un phénomène courant dans les tissus somatiques qui concorde avec l’expression d’éléments LINE1 fonctionnels. Ceci suggère que la rétrotransposition peut être un mécanisme normal dans la plupart des tissus humains. Enfin, l’analyse de l’expression des éléments Alu et LINE1 chez la souris montre que la transcription de rétrotransposons n’est pas spécifique de l’humain. Dans la seconde partie de cette étude, une nouvelle méthode a été développée pour explorer l’impact de l’édition de l’ARN sur le transcriptome en identifiant les ARN édités par séquençage haut-débit. Dans un premier temps, un anticorps ciblant ADAR a été utilisé pour extraire les ARN associés aux protéines de l’édition. Cette méthode n’étant pas suffisamment efficace, une autre stratégie, qui extrait directement les ARN contenant de l’inosine, a été développée : dans un premier temps, l’ARN est fixé à des billes magnétiques par leurs extrémités 3’, ensuite, les billes sont traitées au glyoxal/acide borique et à la RNAse T1 pour libérer la région 5’ des ARN contenant une ou plusieurs inosines, et enfin, les ARN libérés sont séquencés par séquençage haut débit. En utilisant cette méthode, 1822 sites d’éditions ont été identifiés dans l’ARN de cerveau de souris, incluant 28 nouveaux sites présents dans des séquences codantes qui conduisent à des mutations non-synonymes des futures protéines. Des sites d’éditions ont aussi été observés pour la première fois dans les ARN ribosomaux, les snoRNA et les snRNA. / The Alu repeats comprise more than 10% of the human genome. They spread in the genome by retrotransposition. As a response to this invasion, organisms developed mechanisms to preserve the integrity of their genome, such as RNA editing. The most abundant type of editing in mammals is A-to-I editing where the ADAR proteins transform adenosine into inosine and targets mainly Alu elements in human. Editing of the Alu elements leads to their sequestration in the nucleus and mutates their internal POLIII promoter and their poly-A tail, thus preventing their subsequent transposition. In the first part of this study, we challenged the view that Alu elements are dormant occupant of the genome by characterizing their activity. Deep-sequencing data analyses revealed that ~40% of Alu elements can bind POLIII, they present a definite localization in the cell and associate with chromatin and polysomes, and that Alu elements transcription is a widespread phenomenon in normal tissues which correlates with functional LINE1 elements expression. This suggested that Alu element retrotransposition may be a natural mechanism in most normal human tissues. Further analyses showed that SINE and LINE expression in somatic tissues was not exclusive to human but also occurs in mouse. Finally, attempts were made to identify tissue specific insertions in the human genome resulting from retrotransposition events. In the second part of this study, a new method was developed to understand the full impact of RNA editing on transcriptomes by characterizing the edited RNA in a high-throughput fashion. First, immunoprecipitation was attempted to pull-down RNA associated with the editing enzymes ADARs. Since this method was inefficient, another approach purifying directly the edited RNA was developed. First, the RNA was sequestered on magnetic beads. Then an inosine specific cleavage based on RNAseT1 treatment of RNA protected with glyoxal and borate allowed the separation of the edited RNA from the total RNA. Finally, deep sequencing was used to identify edited RNA. 1,822 editing sites were found in mouse brain RNA by this method, including 28 new editing sites modifying the coding sequences of genes and editing in rRNA, snoRNA and snRNA which were never observed before.

Les rétrotransposons L1 (Long INterspersed Element-1) sont des éléments génétiques mobiles dont l'activité contribue à la dynamique du génome humain par mutagenèse insertionnelle. Les conséquences génétiques et épigénétiques d'une nouvelle insertion, et la capacité d'un L1 à être remobilisé, sont directement liées au site d’intégration dans le génome. Aussi, l’analyse des sites d’intégration des L1s est capitale pour comprendre leur impact fonctionnel - voire pathogène -, en particulier lors de la tumorigenèse ou au cours du vieillissement, et l’évolution de notre génome. Dans ce but, nous avons induit de façon expérimentale la rétrotransposition d'un élément L1 actif plasmidique dans des cellules en culture. Puis, nous avons cartographié les insertions obtenues de novo dans le génome humain grâce à une méthode de séquençage à haut-débit, appelée ATLAS-seq. Finalement, les sites pré-intégratifs identifiés par cette approche ont été analysés en relation avec un grand jeu de données publiques regroupant les caractéristiques structurales, génétiques ou épigénétiques de ces loci. Ces expériences ont révélé que les éléments L1 s’intègrent préférentiellement dans des régions de la chromatine faiblement exprimées et renfermant des activateurs faibles. Nous avons aussi trouvé plusieurs positions chromosomiques qui constituent des points chauds d'intégrations récurrentes. Nos résultats indiquent que la distribution des insertions de L1 de novo n’est pas aléatoire, que ce soit à l’échelle chromosomique ou à plus petite échelle, et ouvrent la porte à l'identification des déterminants moléculaires qui contrôlent la distribution chromosomique des L1s dans notre génome / Retrotransposons are mobile genetic elements that employ an RNA intermediate and a reverse transcription step for their replication. Long INterspersed Elements-1 (LINE-1 or L1) form the only autonomously active retrotransposon family in humans. Although most copies are defective due to the accumulation of mutations, each individual genome contains an average of 100 retrotransposition-competent L1 copies, which contribute to the dynamics of contemporary human genomes. L1 integration sites in the host genome directly determine the genetic consequences of the integration and the fate of the integrated copy. Thus, where L1 integrates in the genome, and whether this process is random, is critical to our understanding of human genome evolution, somatic genome plasticity in cancer and aging, and host-parasite interactions. To characterize L1 insertion sites, rather than studying endogenous L1 which have been subjected to evolutionary selective pressure, we induced de novo L1 retrotransposition by transfecting a plasmid-borne active L1 element into HeLa S3 cells. Then, we mapped de novo insertions in the human genome at nucleotide resolution by a dedicated deep-sequencing approach, named ATLAS-seq. Finally, de novo insertions were examined for their proximity towards a large number of genomic features. We found that L1 preferentially integrates in the lowly-expressed and weak enhancer chromatin segments. We also detected several hotspots of recurrent L1 integration. Our results indicate that the distribution of de novo L1 insertions is non-random both at local and regional scales, and pave the way to identify potential cellular factors involved in the targeting of L1 insertions

Eukaryotic genomes contain a large number of repetitive structures. Their detection and assembly today are the main challenges of bioinformatics. This work includes a classification of repetitive DNA and represents an implementation of a novel de novo assembler focusing on searching and constructing LTR retrotransposons and satellite DNA. Assembler accepts on his input short reads (single or pair-end), obtained from next-generation sequencing machines (NGS). This assembler is based on Overlap Layout Consensus approach.

Les rétrotransposons sont des éléments génétiques mobiles qui constituent presque la moitié de notre génome. Seule la sous-famille L1HS appartenant à la classe des Long Interspersed Element-1(LINE-1 ou L1) a gardé une capacité de mobilité autonome chez l’Homme. Leur mobilisation dans la lignée germinale, mais Aussi dans certains tissus somatiques, contribue à la diversité du génome humain ainsi qu’à certaines maladies comme le cancer. Ainsi, de nouvelles copies de L1 peuvent directement s'intégrer dans des séquences codantes ou régulatrices, et altérer leur fonction. De plus, les séquences L1 contiennent elles-mêmes plusieurs éléments cis-régulateurs et leur insertion à proximité ou dans un gène peut produire des altérations génétiques plus subtiles. Afin d'explorer l'ensemble de ces altérations à l'échelle du génome, nous avons développé un logiciel dédié à l’analyse des données de séquençage d'ARN qui permet d'identifier des transcrits chimériques ou antisens impliquant les L1 et d'annoter ces isoformes en fonction des différents événements d’épissage alternatif subits. Au cours de ce travail, il est apparu que la compréhension du lien entre polymorphisme des insertions et phénotype nécessite une vue complète des différentes copies L1HS présentes chez un individu donné. Afin de disposer d'un catalogue aussi complet que possible de ces polymorphismes identifiés dans des échantillons humains sains ou pathologiques et publiés dans des journaux scientifiques, nous avons développé euL1db, la base de données des insertions de rétrotransposon L1HS chez l’Homme. En conclusion, ce travail aidera à comprendre l’impact des L1 sur l’expression des gènes, à l'échelle du génome. / Retrotransposons are mobile genetics elements, which form almost half of our genome. Only the L1HS subfamily of the Long Interspersed Element-1 class (LINE-1 or L1) has retained the ability to jump autonomously in humans. Their mobilization in the germline – but also in some somatic tissues – contributes to human genetic diversity and to diseases, such as cancer. L1 reactivation can be directly mutagenic by disrupting genes or regulatory sequences. In addition, L1 sequences themselves contain many regulatory cis-elements. Thus, L1 insertions near a gene or within intronic sequences can also produce more subtle genic alterations. To explore L1-mediated genic alterations in a genome-wide manner, we have developed a dedicated RNA-seq analysis software able to identify L1 chimeric or antisense transcripts and to annotate these novel isoforms with their associated alternative splicing events. During the course of this work, it appeared that understanding the link between L1HS insertion polymorphisms and phenotype or disease requires a comprehensive view of the different L1HS copies present in a given individual or sample. To provide a comprehensive summary of L1HS insertion polymorphisms identified in healthy or pathological human samples and published in peer-reviewed journals, we developed euL1db, the European database of L1HS retrotransposon insertions in humans. This work will help understanding the overall impact of L1 insertions on gene expression, at a genome-wide scale.

Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are small non-autonomous and heterogeneous retrotransposons, widespread in animals and plants and usually differentially propagated in related species resulting in genome-specific copy numbers. Within the monocots, the Poaceae (sweet grasses) is the largest and economically most important plant family. The distribution of 24 Poaceae SINE (PoaS) families, five of which showing a subfamily structure, was analyzed in five important cereals (Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare, Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays), the energy crop Panicum virgatum and the model grass Brachypodium distachyon. The comparative investigation of SINE abundance and sequence diversity within Poaceae species provides insights into their species‐specific diversification and amplification. The PoaS families and subfamilies fall into two length and structural categories: simple SINEs of up to 180 bp and dimeric SINEs larger than 240 bp. Of 24 PoaS families, 20 are structurally related across species, in particular either in their 5′ or 3′ regions. Hence, reshuffling between SINEs, likely caused by nested insertions of full-lengh and truncated copies, is an important evolutionary mechanism of SINE formation. Most striking, the recently evolved homodimeric SINE family PoaS‐XIV occurs exclusively in wheat (T. aestivum) and consists of two tandemly arranged PoaS‐X.1 copies. Exemplary for deciduous tree species, the evolutionary history of SINE populations was examined in six Salicaceae genomes (Populus deltoides, Populus euphratica, Populus tremula, Populus tremuloides, Populus trichocarpa, Salix purpurea). Four of eleven Salicaceae SINE (SaliS) families exhibit a subfamily organization. The SaliS families consist of two groups, differing in their phylogenetic distribution pattern, sequence similarity and 3’ end structure. These groups probably emerged at different evolutionary periods of time: during the ‘salicoid duplication’ (~ 65 million years ago) in the Salix-Populus progenitor, and during the separation of the genus Salix (~ 45 - 65 million years ago), respectively. Similar to the PoaS families, the majority of the 20 SaliS families and subfamilies share regions of sequence similarity, providing evidence for SINE emergence by reshuffling. Furthermore, they also contain an evolutionarily young dimeric SINE family (SaliS-V), amplified only in two poplar genomes. The special feature of the Salicaceae SINEs is the contrast of the conservation of 5’ start motifs across species and SINE families compared to the high variability of 3’ ends within the SINE families, differing in sequence and length, presumably resulting from mutations in the poly(A) tail as a possible route for SINE elongation. Periods of increased transpositional activity promote the dissemination of novel 3’ ends. Thereby, evolutionarily older motifs are displaced leading to various 3’ end subpopulations within the SaliS families. Opposed to the PoaS families with a largely equal ratio of poly(A) to poly(T) tail SINEs, the SaliS families are exclusively terminated by adenine stretches. Among retrotransposon-based markers, SINEs are highly suitable for the development of molecular markers due to their unidirectional insertion and random distribution mainly in euchromatic genome regions, together with an easy and fast detection of the heterogeneous SINE families. As a prerequisite for the development of SINE-derived inter-SINE amplified polymorphism (ISAP) markers, 13 novel Theaceae SINE families (TheaS-I - TheaS-VII, TheaS-VIII.1 and TheaS-VIII.2, TheaS-IX - TheaS-XIII) were identified in the angiosperm tree species Camellia japonica. Moreover, six Pinaceae SINE families (PinS-I.1 and PinS-I.2, PinS-II – PinS-VI) were detected in the gymnosperm species Larix decidua. Compared to the SaliS and PoaS families, structural relationships are less frequent within the TheaS families and absent in the PinS families. The ISAP analysis revealed the genetic identity of Europe’s oldest historical camellia (C. japonica) trees indicating their vegetative propagation from the same ancestor specimen, which was probably the first living camellia on European ground introduced to England within the 18th century. Historical sources locate the native origin of this ancestral camellia specimen either in the Chinese province Yunnan or at the Japanese Gotō Islands. Comparative ISAPs showed no accordance to the Gotō camellia sample pool and appropriate Chinese reference samples were not available. However, the initial experiments demonstrated the potential of ISAP to resolve variations among natural populations. The ISAP application on angiosperm trees also concerned fast growing Populus clones grown in short rotation coppice plantations for energy production. The species-specific P. tremula ISAP primers might also be applied for the discrimination of hybrid poplar clones involving P. tremuloides genome portions, since SINEs of these two species are highly related. However, due to lineage-specific SINE evolution during speciation, cross-species applications are generally only successful to limited extent. The analysis of poplar hybrids composed of P. maximowiczii with either P. trichocarpa or P. nigra based on P. tremula ISAP primers showed a strongly reduced resolution. In forestry, hybrid larch (e.g. Larix × eurolepis) genotypes have to be selected from the offspring of Japanese (Larix kaempferi) and European larch (Larix decidua) crosses, as they exhibit superior growth rates compared to the parental species. Initial ISAP-based examinations of European larch genotypes provided less polymorphic banding patterns, probably resulting from general high levels of synteny and collinearities reported for gymnosperm species. Hence, the ISAP was combined with the AFLP technique to the novel marker system inter-SINE-restriction site amplified polymorphism (ISRAP). The amplicons originating from genomic regions between SINEs and EcoRI cleavage sites were visualized with the sensitive capillary gel electrophoresis. The ISRAP assays, based on EcoRI adapter primers combined with two different SINE-derived primers, resulted in a sufficient number of polymorphic peaks to distinguish the L. decidua genotypes investigated. Compared to ISAPs, the ISRAP approach provides the required resolution to differentiate highly similar larch genotypes.

De l’organisme unicellulaire aux organismes multicellulaires complexes, la spécification cellulaires est un aspect fondamental de la biologie de l'adaptation et du développement. Les cellules souches pluripotentes (CSP) telles que les embryonnaires (CSE) fournissent un modèle approprié pour étudier les mécanismes de régulation et la spécification du sort des cellules chez les mammifères. Les ESC de souris sont connus pour être de nature hétérogènes et sont rapportées comme étant composées de multiples états de cellules souches ressemblant à des stades distincts du développement embryonnaire précoce, tels que totipotentes, pluripotentes, préparées et endoderme primitif. Malgré des études approfondies sur les CSE, les mécanismes moléculaires régulant leur hétérogénéité et l'état totipotent, en particulier, ne sont pas bien compris. Le travail présenté dans cette thèse utilise les CSE de souris comme modèle intéressant pour déterminer les mécanismes de signalisation et de régulation génique qui conduisent à l'hétérogénéité cellulaire et l'état cellulaire totipotent des CSE. Dans une première étude, nous avons utilisé la cytométrie en flux de masse pour analyser simultanément de multiples protéines régulatrices des cellules souches, en mettant l'accent sur les facteurs de transcription clés, les protéines de signalisation et les modificateurs de la chromatine qui régissent les CSE de souris. Les données de cytométrie en flux de masse ont révélé des variations dans les niveaux protéiques cellulaires individuels des régulateurs des cellules souches et ont souligné la vaste coactivation des voies de signalisation cellulaire dans des conditions de culture définies des CSE. De plus, l'application de la cytométrie en flux de masse a facilité l'identification d'états cellulaires distincts et de leurs caractéristiques moléculaires au sein des CSE, offrant des aperçus de leurs variations selon différentes conditions de culture, validant ainsi la présence d'hétérogénéité cellulaire dans les CSE de souris. Dans une deuxième étude, nous avons identifié la signalisation du facteur de croissance des os (BMP) comme inducteur de l'état totipotent. Nous avons également constaté que le rôle du BMP dans la totipotence est réprimé par la coactivation des voies FGF, NODAL et WNT. En inhibant ces voies coactivées, nous démontrons l'amélioration de l'induction de cellules totipotentes et la suppression des états préparés et d'endoderme primitif. Nous avons validé les changements d'état cellulaire au niveau cellulaire unique grâce à un séquençage d'ARNm à cellule unique. De plus, nous avons également démontré que les cellules totipotentes reprogrammées in vitro imitent les cellules totipotentes de l'embryon préimplantatoire avec la capacité de générer des blastocystes in vitro (Blastoïdes) et de s'intégrer dans les lignées embryonnaires et extra-embryonnaires chez la souris. Ensemble, ces résultats ont révélé les mécanismes de signalisation du BMP pour réguler à la fois l'état totipotent et l'hétérogénéité des CSE. Pour la troisième étude, nous avons utilisé les observations clés de nos données de cytométrie en flux de masse (première étude) pour évaluer le rôle des protéines régulatrices clés pour promouvoir l'état cellulaire totipotent. Ici, nous démontrons que NACC1, un régulateur transcriptionnel des CSE, agit également comme un régulateur important des cellules totipotentes. Après avoir identifié NACC1 comme un régulateur potentiel à partir de données de protéines cellulaires à cellule unique et de transcriptome en vrac, nous avons validé sa fonction en utilisant une suppression médiée par CRISPR en combinaison avec des conditions de reprogrammation cellulaire pluripotente à totipotente. Ensuite, nous avons intégré une combinaison d'approches génomiques pour étudier les changements au niveau du système dépendants de NACC1 dans le transcriptome, l'accessibilité à la chromatine et la liaison à l'ADN génomique. Ensemble, ces données ont révélé que NACC1 induit à la fois les programmes d'expression génique codant et de gènes de rétrotransposons pour promouvoir l'état cellulaire totipotent. Enfin, nous avons montré que NACC1 régule les éléments rétrotransposables MERVL-int et MT2_Mm pour moduler l'expression des gènes codants de l'état totipotent. En conclusion, cette thèse révèle la nature hétérogène des CSE de souris au niveau protéique à cellule unique, élucide le rôle significatif et les mécanismes de la voie de signalisation BMP pour réguler l'état totipotent et l'hétérogénéité des CSE, et dévoile les mécanismes de régulation génique dépendants de NACC1 pour promouvoir l'état totipotent. Ces résultats ouvrent la voie à des études ultérieures visant à comprendre la spécification de l'état des cellules souches et leur transition via la modulation des voies de signalisation / facteurs de transcription. De plus, ces mécanismes peuvent réguler l'état cellulaire totipotent chez l'homme, éclairant l'hétérogénéité cellulaire dans les CSE humaines et dans des contextes pathologiques, tels que le cancer. / From unicellular entities to intricate multicellular organisms, the omnipresent process of cell fate specification is a fundamental aspect of adaptation and developmental biology. Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) such as embryonic stem cells (ESCs) provide a suitable model to study the regulatory mechanisms and cell fate specification in mammals. Intriguingly, mouse ESCs are known to be heterogenous in nature and are reported to consist of multiple stem cell states resembling distinct stages of early embryogenesis, such as totipotent, pluripotent, primed, and primitive endoderm. Despite extensive study of ESCs, the molecular mechanisms regulating their heterogeneity and the totipotent state in particular are not well understood. The work presented in this thesis utilizes mouse ESCs as an attractive model to delineate the signaling and gene regulatory mechanisms driving the cellular heterogeneity and the totipotent cell state of ESCs. In the first study, we utilized mass cytometry (cytometry by time of flight) to concurrently analyse multiple stem cell regulatory proteins, focusing on key transcription factors, signaling proteins, and chromatin modifiers that govern mouse ESCs. Mass cytometry data revealed variations in the single-cell protein levels of stem cell regulators and highlighted the extensive cross-activation of cell signaling pathways across defined culture conditions of ESCs. Furthermore, the application of mass cytometry facilitated the identification of distinct cell states and their molecular features within ESCs, offering insights into their variations across different culture conditions, thereby validating the presence of cellular heterogeneity in mouse ESCs. In the second study, we identified bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling as an inducer of the totipotent state. We also found that, BMP’s role for totipotency is repressed by the cross-activation of FGF, NODAL, and WNT pathways. Through rational inhibition of these cross-activated pathways, we demonstrate the enhancement in the induction of totipotent cells and suppression of primed and primitive endoderm states. We validated the cell state changes at the single-cell level through single-cell mRNA sequencing. Furthermore, we also demonstrate that the in-vitro reprogrammed totipotent cells mimic the totipotent cells of preimplantation embryo with the potency to generate in-vitro blastocyst (Blastoids) and to integrate into both embryonic and extra-embryonic lineages in the mice. Together these results revealed BMP signaling mechanisms to regulate both the totipotent state and the heterogeneity of ESCs. For our third study, we utilized the key observations from our mass cytometry data (first study) to evaluate the role of key regulatory proteins to promote the totipotent cell state. Here, we demonstrate that NACC1, a transcriptional regulator of ESCs, also acts as an important regulator of totipotent cells. Following identification of NACC1 as a potential regulator from both single-cell protein and bulk transcriptome data, we validated its function using CRISPR-mediated knock-out in combination with pluripotent-to-totipotent cell reprogramming conditions. Next, we integrated a combination of genomic approaches to study the NACC1 dependent system’s level changes in the transcriptome, chromatin accessibility and genomic DNA binding. Together, these data revealed that NACC1 induces both the coding gene and retrotransposon gene expression programs to promote the totipotent cell state. Finally, we showed that NACC1 regulates MERVL-int and MT2_Mm retrotransposable elements to modulate the expression of coding genes of the totipotent state. In conclusion, this thesis reveals the heterogeneous nature of mouse ESCs at the single-cell protein level, elucidates the significant role and mechanisms of BMP signaling pathway to regulate the totipotent state and ESC heterogeneity, and unveils NACC1 dependent gene regulatory mechanisms to promote the totipotent state. These findings open the door for subsequent studies aimed at understanding stem cell state specification and their transition occurring via modulation of signaling pathways / transcription factors. Moreover, these mechanisms may regulate the totipotent cell state in humans, shedding light on the cellular heterogeneity in human ESCs and in disease contexts, such as cancer.