網際網路是繼電子計算機發明後，帶給人類最大衝擊的一項革命，它突破了地理的籓籬，資訊的流動可以在極短暫的時間內跨越國界，這是其他媒體所望塵莫及的。而這種傳播特性最為人所詬病的問題之一，就是網路謠言的充斥。透過E-mail、BBS、NEWS、WWW等各種不同的管道散播出來的謠言，不僅可能造成個人的名譽受損、企業的形象破壞，許多的犯罪手法也因而產生。就企業主而言，網路謠言的殺傷力莫過於對公司形象與品牌聲譽的損害，而如何防範與澄清消息的正確性，已成為企業公關與危機管理的重要一環。 本研究則分析現有的謠言與消息來源理論，探討謠言的結構、傳播過程以及其社會心理成因等，並比較電腦中介傳播 (CMC) 與一般謠言口耳相傳 (FtF) 之下的謠言特性，以及探討傳統大眾媒體與網路媒介傳播謠言效果之差異，歸納出影響謠言傳播的可能因素包括謠言的可相信度、渾沌不安、訊息特性、涉入度、網路訊息惰性、人口統計變數與網路使用行為等。利用這些可能的變數，本研究設計兩組實驗來衡量謠言散播與闢謠效果，實驗一利用可相信度與渾沌不安兩個變數操弄謠言，並以小樣本的散播實驗來衡量謠言操弄的結果，探討謠言散播模式與影響變數，並以計數器追溯謠言散播的情形，來了解謠言散播的真實面貌；實驗二則以類似的實驗方法，選擇一則已發生的網路謠言案例來研究謠言散佈模型，並以發送闢謠信件的方式來探討其謠言防治效果。 實驗一在經網路謠言散播實驗之後，發現操弄變數的差異並不顯著，故實驗一改採Regression檢定，最後發現可相信度、訊息特性與渾沌不安是影響謠言散播的主要因素，網路訊息惰性則對謠言散播有間接影響效果，而可相信度有部分的中介效果；在電子郵件闢謠實驗方面，實驗二發現可相信度與網路訊息惰性對訊息的散播有顯著影響效果，而可相信度有部分的中介效果。由此可知，兩個實驗的散佈模式並不相同，其原因有可能是因為涉入度的差異。另外，兩個實驗皆發現經由電子郵件散播的訊息符合創新採用理論，其中實驗一的謠言與實驗二的闢謠訊息為Rogers所說的不完全散佈模式，而實驗二的謠言則為所謂的「S」形創新散佈曲線。 此外，本研究利用謠言的追蹤計數，得到了散播曲線與訊息散播方程式，並估計而求出了謠言的散播速度。由追溯的結果得知，網路謠言傳播的速度十分快速，尤其實驗二的謠言在第2.2日時就達擴散曲線的反曲點，一星期內散佈的人數高達原來樣本數的兩倍；相反的，不被眾人散播的謠言可以在短短幾天之內就趨於平息。而本研究也對網路訊息的「散播者」與「非散播者」作出比較，發現散播者的散佈可能性、對謠言的相信度、渾沌不安等都比非散播者高，但網路訊息惰性則較低。在粗淺的瞭解這群可能的網路「意見領袖」之後，企業界可以專注於這群人作有效的闢謠公關活動，讓網路謠言的管理更有效率。 最後，本研究彙整謠言的應對策略，並對企業因應謠言的危機管理的模式，提出許多的方案與建議，讓企業界在面對網路謠言時，能有參考的依循，並將損害減至最低。 / Not only has the internet increased the efficiency of communication, it has also brought out severe crises in the real world. Messages can be circulated all over the world in just seconds. As a result, geographical barriers have been virtually broken down. However, while rumors and hoaxes can easily be distributed through e-mail, BBS, news group, and so on, such false information may cause severe damage to individuals and corporations concerned, even trigger criminal offenses. How to prevent potential damage of commercial reputations which may cause by internet rumors and clarify the existing grapevines is one of the most important issues each corporation needs to address in the present information society. This thesis is inclined to find out the differences between Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) and Face-to-Face (FtF) Communication in terms of the variables which affect the diffusion of rumors, i.e. Credibility, Anxie-uncertainty, Message Property, Involvement, Internet Inertia, demographical variables, and personal internet behavior. Two experiments are designed in this research. Exp.1 operates Credibility versus Anxie-uncertainty into four rumors and illustrates the correlation between Diffusion Possibility and each of the aforesaid independent variables which can facilitate establishing the diffusion model for Internet Rumors accordingly. Exp.2 is an empirical study based on the diffusion model built up in Exp.1. A pre-selected existing rumor is used as the research sample. It remodels the rumor diffusion and measures the clarification effect through e-mail as well. Moreover, both experiments use Site Meter to trace the mechanism of rumor diffusion. Numbers of the rumor being viewed and its responses and clarifications can be easily counted. According to experiments, Credibility and Anxie-uncertainty are originally well operated in pretests. However, the manipulated variables are not fully distinguished in Exp.1. Hence, Regression is employed to test the hypotheses and as a result, Credibility, Anxie-uncertainty, and Message Property are the key variables that directly influence rumor diffusion in Exp.1 while Internet Inertia has indirect effect on the outspread of a rumor. In Exp.2, both Credibility and Internet Inertia play important roles in the diffusion behavior while Credibility acts as a partial mediating variable in this case. Additionally, this research also shows the possibility and degree that Involvement might be the factor which causes discrepancy between these 2 models. However, it needs to be confirmed by further research. Moreover, both models fit the Distribution Theory of Innovations developed by Rogers. Rumors in Exp.1 and clarify message in Exp.2 are both Unsuccessful Diffusion while rumor in Exp. 2 belongs to S-shaped Normal Diffusion. Incidentally, diffusion curves and the function of rumor diffusion are obtained to work out through simulation equations and so are the diffusion rates, which surprised us for their rapid distribution. The inverse point was reached in the 2.2 days after the rumor message was distributed in Exp.2, and almost two folds of the original group numbers were reached in just one week. On the other hand, rumors which were not circulated would be quelled in few days. Comparisons between the Distributor and the Non-distributor in the Internet society are also made in this study in facilitating the management of corporate grapevines. The Distributor believes rumors and are more aggressive in rumor distribution and shows higher Anxie-uncertainty, while their Internet Inertia are lower than Non-distributor. Knowing more about the so-called Internet “Opinion Leader” helps corporations focus on crisis management by initiating effective public activities not only because they are cores of grapevines but are also easier to approach than others. Finally, various corporate strategies of confining rumors are developed in the thesis. Suggestions and alternatives are provided in conclusion. Corporate administrators can therefore take them for reference when dealing with rumor-caused crises.

Le présent mémoire porte sur les stratégies de gestion de rumeurs par les organisations sur Internet et sur les réseaux sociaux. Il se veut une étude dite « ventriloque » des figures d’autorité mises en présence par les organisations et les internautes à travers leurs interactions. L'objectif de cette recherche est ainsi d’étudier les stratégies employées par les organisations pour gérer les rumeurs sur Internet et d’observer les interactions entre l’organisation et ses consommateurs afin de comprendre le rapport des organisations avec leurs consommateurs, réels ou potentiels, grâce aux figures mises en scène et invoquées dans leurs stratégies. Comme nous le montrons dans nos analyses, les organisations mettent en scène une multitude de figures d’autorité pour convaincre leurs consommateurs. En même temps, elles se positionnent comme sujettes à des agentivités qui sont contextuelles aux rumeurs auxquelles elles font face. De la même façon, les internautes mettent en scène les préoccupations qui les animent. Les dialogues entre organisations et internautes reflètent différentes relations entre ces deux parties. En particulier, nous montrons que les organisations n’interagissent pas toutes de la même manière avec les internautes. Cette analyse s’appuie sur des données récoltées sur les sites internet des organisations étudiées et sur les réseaux Facebook et Twitter. / In this thesis, we analyze the strategies organizations develop to manage and fight against rumors through the Internet and the social media. The objective is to mobilize a ventriloquial approach to analyze how various authority figures are used by the organizations and the consumers to lend weight to their respective positions through their online interactions. As we show, organizations use a multitude of authority figures to convince their consumers. At the same time, they position themselves as subjected to agencies that are contextual to the rumor they are facing. Similarly, Internet users stage concerns that are supposed to drive their positions. As we show, dialogues between organizations and Internet users reflect different relations between these two parties. Indeed, organizations do not all interact in the same way with Internet users. This analysis is based on data collected from organization websites and social media such as Facebook and Twitter.

This research explores how community-centered solutions facilitate the success and ownership of the response actions to deal with a public health emergency, such as the Covid-19 pandemic. When an outbreak or a hazard impacts a group of people, there is a strong need for communication in order to be able to access to the right information that takes people to make the correct decision and thus to take a protective action to be safe. This approach, known as Risk Communication and Community Engagement (RCCE)[1], allows the co-production of knowledge needed for a group of people to remain safe. For this approach, social listening tools, such as media monitoring and community feedback collection are critical understand communities’ needs. Its analysis allows to tailor a RCCE strategy that is able to substantially reduce the threat that a public health emergency poses to human lives[2].  Communities need solutions that are adapted to their needs in order to be able to deal with any emergency, including the Covid-19 pandemic. The RCCE approach empowers communities and provides them with the tools to amplify their voices. This participatory approach allows them to co-produce knowledge and get full ownership of the solutions.  Nevertheless, in an environment with excess of information, it may not be easy to discern the truth from the false. Unverified information and rumors are frequent and social media channels facilitate their rapid dissemination without borders. ‘Infodemic’ refers to an excessive amount of information concerning a problem such that the solution is made more difficult. (WHO, 2020)[3]  Some rumors may encourage people to take wrong decisions and perform actions that exacerbate risks during an emergency. The RCCE approach helps to promote real-time exchange of information to avoid that rumors and disinformation flourish. (WHO, 2018)[4]. It also allows to identify and implement community-centered solutions to communities’ problems.  RCCE needs data to monitor and evaluate its activities and reach effectively populations in risk to encourage them to observe the health preventive measures. Lives at risk depends on the right information conveyed through the right channel at the right time. To be able to supply tailored and accurate information to those communities and engage them, evidence-based RCCE strategies are needed, respecting the socio-anthropological and cultural context of the community. This research is based on the findings from five African countries -Cabo Verde, Cameroon, the Gambia, Mozambique and Niger-, all of them seriously affected by current Covid-19 pandemic. Its conclusions help to understand the critical role that RCCE plays in health emergencies resilient recovery.   [1] World Health Organization (WHO) (‎2020)‎. Risk communication and community engagement (‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎RCCE)‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎ readiness and response to the 2019 novel coronaviruses (‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎2019-‎‎nCoV)‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎: interim guidance, 26 January 2020. Geneva: WHO. [2] Risk Communication is one of the eight core functions of the International Health Regulations (2005) [3] World Health Organization (WHO) (‎2020)‎. Infodemic management: a key component of the COVID-19 global response. Weekly Epidemiological Record 95 (‎16)‎, 145 - 148. World Health Organization.  [4] World Health Organization (WHO) (2018). Communicating Risk in Public Health Emergencies - A WHO Guideline for Emergency Risk Communication (ERC) policy and practice. Geneva: World Health Organization.

This dissertation is based on my research into distinction processes (Calhoun, 1994; Cerulo 1997) between tourists and inhabitants of West Sumba in Eastern Indonesia. The imaginiaries (Castoriadis, 1987; Strauss, 2006; Lacan, 1977; Anderson, 1991; Salazar, 2012) of West Sumbanese people about foreigners also emerge from diving rumors (Bysow, 1928; Allport and Postman, 1947/1965). Their origins, dissemination, and sharpening processes, as well as their consequences will be analysed herein. This case study demonstrates how mental models of otherness are formed and reified, how they clash, and for what purposes they may be utilized. It will also analyze how imaginaries influence behavior and may lead to miscommunication in West Sumba.

The study, from a prosumer perspective, has examined the activities of parents on Facebook, as well as how the City of Malmö can proactively work to prevent trust crises and the spread of rumors. Using method triangulation, the study was conducted through five qualitative individual interviews, a focus group and a document analysis of Malmö city's communication policy. The results presented in the study highlight the need for mutual relationship building to meet the communication and information needs of parents in today's digital landscape. The study concludes that for the City of Malmö to meet people's needs and expectations, there is a requirement for adaptation and adjustment to both digital and societal developments. Likewise, it is necessary for parents to adapt and change within the modern era. / Studien har, utifrån ett prosumentperspektiv, undersökt vårdnadshavares aktiviteter på Facebook, samt hur Malmö stad kan arbeta förebyggande för att förhindra förtroendekriser samt ryktesspridning. Studien har med hjälp av metodtriangulering utförts genom fem kvalitativa individuella intervjuer, en fokusgrupp och en dokumentanalys av Malmö stads kommunikationspolicy. Resultatet som presenteras i studien är behovet av ömsesidigt relationsskapande för att tillgodose vårdnadshavares kommunikations- och informationsbehov i dagens digitala landskap. Studiens slutsats är, för att Malmö stad ska kunna möta människors behov och förväntningar krävs en förändring och anpassning till såväl den digitala utvecklingen som den samhälleliga utvecklingen. Likaså är det nödvändigt för vårdnadshavare att anpassa sig till och förändra sig i takt med den moderna eran.

Denna studies huvudsakliga syfte är att undersöka om och hur socialarbetare som arbetar inom ramen för socialtjänstens arbete med familjer, påverkas i praktiken av desinformationskampanjen och hur detta tar sig i uttryck. Utgångspunkten är vilka eventuella konsekvenser kampanjen haft för socialarbetarnas möjligheter till relationsskapande, att skapa allians och bygga tillit utifrån deras handlingsutrymme i mötet med barn, unga och deras familjer. I den tidigare forskningen inom områdena tillit, allians och socialt arbete inom socialtjänsten, framgår det att tilliten är låg bland vissa grupper, att allians kan bidra till förändring, men att det inom myndighetsutövning är svårt att upprätta allians med klienter. Slutligen framkommer det i den tidigare forskningen att yrkesverksamma inom socialtjänsten är högt arbetsbelastade och behöver förhålla sig till klienter, rädda barn från missförhållanden och leva upp till organisationens förväntningar, vilket inte alltid går i linje med deras ambitioner. Kunskapsluckan jag avser att fylla med uppsatsen är framförallt forskning om desinformationskampanjens eventuella konsekvenser för det sociala arbetet inom socialtjänstens arbete med familjer och hur detta manifesteras i praktiken mellan klienter och yrkesverksamma. Empirin för denna studie har samlats in genom fyra semistrukturerade intervjuer med yrkesverksamma socialsekreterare och familjebehandlare i olika stadsdelsförvaltningar i Stockholm. Resultatet för denna undersökning pekar på att det är svårt att bygga tillit, allians och relation till klienter som påverkats av ryktesspridningens budskap, inom ramen för socialtjänstens arbete med familjer. Konsekvenser blir att personer som potentiellt är i behov av stödinsatser, undviker socialtjänsten, där en ytterligare konsekvens är att barn i familjer med låg tillit, riskerar växa upp under sämre förhållanden än andra. Tillit och allians beskrivs som viktigt för att kunna samarbeta med familjer och bidra till förändring. I vissa ärenden har möjligheten att bygga tillitsfulla relationer och allians varit obefintligt, och ärenden avslutas på grund av låg tillit till socialtjänsten på grund av spridningen av desinformation. Samtidigt är handlingsutrymmet för socialsekreterare är begränsat, bland annat genom hög arbetsbelastning med många ärenden och brist på tid, vilket i sin tur försvårar möjligheten att bygga tillitsfulla relationer och allians. / The main purpose of this study is to investigate whether and how social workers who work within the swedish social service's work with families are affected in practice by the disinformation campaign and how this manifests itself. With a focus on its consequences on building relations based on trust and alliance and social workers' room for action when working with families. In the previous research on trust, alliance and social workers in social services, it appears that trust is low among certain groups, that alliance can contribute to change, but that in the exercise of authority it is difficult to establish alliance with clients. Finally, it appears in previous research that professionals in social services are burdened with high workload. Also, they need to live up to the client’s and the organization’s expectations, while also working to prevent children from growing up under bad living conditions. The social workers’ ambitions are not always in line with the organizations. The knowledge gap is primarily research into the possible consequences of the disinformation campaign on the social work within social services' work with families and how this is manifested in practice between client and professional. The empirical data for this study has been collected through four semi-structured interviews with professional social workers and family therapists in various district administrations in Stockholm. The results of this study indicate that it is difficult to build trust, alliance and relationship with clients who have been affected by the spread of rumors, within the social services' work with families. The consequences are that individuals, who potentially require support services, avoid social services, leading to another consequence: children in families with low trust risk growing up in worse conditions than others do. Trust and alliance are described as crucial for collaborating with families and facilitating change. In certain cases, the possibility of building trusting relationships and alliances has been non-existent, and cases are closed due to low trust in social services caused by the spread of misinformation. Simultaneously, the discretion for social workers, is limited, partly due to high workloads with numerous cases and a lack of time, which in turn hinders their ability to build trusting relationships and alliances.