Diploma thesis Side Effects of UN Peacekeeping Missions deals with negative sid e ef f e cts of UN peacekeeping operations. The work aims at showing the relation between certain factors and the emergence of the side eff ect s. To do so, four interpretative case studies are used in this thesis. The missions analysed in the case studies share some common characteristics (type of mandate, time period etc.) but differ in the essence of the si de e ff e cts that has been detected during their deployment. For the sid e eff e ct s of human trafficking the UN mission UNMIBH in Bosnia and Hercegovina was analysed, for sexual abuse it was the MONUC in DRC, for diamonds smuggling the UNAMSIL mission in Sierra Leone and for the collaboration with warlords the UNPROFOR in Bosnia and Hercegovina. The applied factors are divided between external (presence of the s id e ef f e cts, the stage of conflict and the efficiency of the central government) and internal (national composition of the mission, level of corruption among the TCC's and the existence of SOFA) and are considered within the context of each case study. This work proofs the relevance of this factors in regard to the emergence of the s id e eff ec ts of peacekeeping.

The Covid-19 pandemic has had a great impact on the society and its inhabitants and this is first and foremost a result of the closed national borders and limited opportunities to travel. Despite these societal restrictions it was stated in a press release that the seizures of drugs had increased in quantity during the pandemic. Because of this it is of interest to examine such a highly topical phenomenon and to see which factors contributed to these results. The purpose with this study is to examine if the concerned authorities experience any change in the drug smuggling to Sweden during the Covid-19 pandemic and to examine possible factors that can be contributing to these changes. In the results it was presented that the reason for the change in seizure statistics was changing methods made by the smugglers and how the drugs were being transported. This is a consequence due to possibilities that were no problem to use earlier were all of the sudden impossible to use due to prevailing societal situations. Further on is the statistics a result of change in working methods within the crime preventing authorities regarding how to place their resources. Encrochat was also a contributing factor to why the statistics are the way it is. Finally it is worth to mention that since the Covid-19 pandemic is an ongoing phenomenon it is problematic to draw an actual conclusion regarding which factors contribute to why the statistics look the way it does and which ones that do not contribute. Because of this it is of high relevance to examine this phenomenon once again when the pandemic is over to be able to figure out if the pandemic was the main reason to why the development in the statistics looks the way it does or if there are any other factors that has had a bigger part in this. / Covid-19 pandemin har haft en stor påverkan på samhället och dess invånare och detta är främst ett resultat av stängda landsgränser och begränsade resmöjligheter. Men trots dessa samhällsrestriktioner uttalade Tullverket sig i ett pressmeddelande att beslagen av narkotika har ökat i mängd under pandemin. Det var därför av intresse att undersöka ett sådant högaktuellt fenomen och se vilka faktorer som bidrog till detta resultatet som Tullverket presenterade. Syftet med studien är att undersöka om berörda myndigheter upplever att det finns någon förändring i narkotikasmugglingen till Sverige under Covid-19 pandemin jämfört med innan pandemin samt att undersöka vilka möjliga faktorer som kan vara bidragande till dessa förändringar. I resultatet från intervjuerna framkom det att anledningen till den förändrade beslagsstatistiken är ändrade metoder från smugglarna och hur de transporterar narkotikan. Detta är en konsekvens av att de möjligheter som tidigare inte var några problem att använda helt plötsligt inte längre är möjliga på grund av rådande samhällssituation. Vidare är statistiken ett resultat av förändrade arbetsformer inom de brottsförebyggande myndigheterna vad gäller hur myndigheterna ska placera sina resurser och vart det är störst sannolikhet att narkotikan kommer in till Sverige. Informanterna belyste även Encrochat som en bidragande faktor till varför statistiken kan se ut som den gör, flera ärenden har gått till åtal till följd av upplösningen av Encrochat och kriminella nätverk har varit tvungna att omorganiseras. Slutligen är det värt att nämna att eftersom Covid-19 pandemin är ett pågående fenomen är det problematiskt att dra en slutsats gällande de faktiska bidragande faktorerna till varför statistiken ser ut som den gör. Det är därför av hög relevans att undersöka fenomenet på nytt när pandemin över för att undersöka om pandemin verkligen var den huvudsakliga faktor till varför utvecklingen ser ut som den gör eller om det finns andra faktorer som har haft större roll.

[pt] A presença de metais-traço nos cigarros oferece uma fonte de informação potencial do ponto de vista forense e criminológico, na determinação e classificação de marcas de tabaco, com o intuito de diferenciar as marcas legalizadas das contrabandeadas. Por isso, neste trabalho, almejou-se desenvolver e validar métodos para determinação metais e semimetais presentes nos cigarros, com o intuito de avaliar a viabilidade de discriminação entre as diferentes marcas, analisando as amostras após o processo de calcinação e dissolução ácida. Estes métodos englobam as análises químicas por técnicas espectrométricas (CV-AAS, ICP-OES e DRC-ICP-MS) e posterior interpretação de dados por ACP (Análise dos Componentes Principais) e AAH (Análise de Agrupamento Hierárquico). As concentrações de metais e semimetais (As, Ba, B, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Hg, Ni, Sr e Zn) foram estudadas para dez diferentes marcas de cigarros, obtidas em tabacarias e lojas locais, representando as marcas mais consumidas no país. A utilização da ACP indicou a presença de quatro componentes principais que, em conjunto, explicavam mais de 80 por cento da variabilidade dos dados amostrais. Esses resultados comprovaram a existência de diferenças significativas entre as marcas de tabaco em seus conteúdos elementares, possibilitando a diferenciação entre marcas ilegais e marcas legalizadas e o agrupamento das marcas legalizadas de acordo com as empresas de tabaco as quais pertencem, sendo corroborado pela AAH, feita pelo método da distância média de ligação (UPGMA). Os teores de umidade, cinzas totais e pH de cada marca também foram determinados, no entanto não contribuíram efetivamente para a diferenciação entre as marcas estudadas. A AAH foi utilizada para a interpretação de possíveis similaridades entre os elementos, e em conjunto com o teste de correlação linear de Pearson, indicou similaridades entre os elementos Ba e Sr . Agrupamentos entre Fe e Zn com o Sr e Co com o Mn também foram detectados. / [en] The presence of trace metals in cigarettes offers potential source of information from a forensic and criminological point of view, which deals with the determination and classification of tobacco brands, with the aim of differentiating legal brands from smuggled brands. Therefore, this work aimed to develop and validate methods for determining the metallic content present in cigarettes, in order to assess the feasibility of discrimination between different brands, analyzing cigarettes after the process of calcination and acid digestion. These methods include chemical analysis by spectrometric techniques (CV-AAS, ICP-OES and DRC-ICPMS) and subsequent data interpretation by PCA (Principal Component Analysis) and HCA (Hierarchical Cluster Analysis). The concentration of metals and semimetals (As, Ba, B, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Hg Ni, Sr and Zn) were studied for ten different brands of cigarettes, obtained in tobacconists and local stores, representing the brands most consumed in the country. The analysis of PCA indicated the presence of four principal components that together explained more than 80 percent of the variability of the sample data. These results proved the existence of significant differences between tobacco brands in their elemental content, allowing the differentiation between illegal brands and legalized brands and the grouping of legal brands according to the tobacco companies to which they belong, being corroborated by the HCA performed by the average link distance method (UPGMA). The moisture content, total ash and pH of each brand were also determined, however they did not contribute effectively to the differentiation between the brands studied. The HCA used for the interpretation of possible similarities between the elements, and interpreted together with Pearson s linear correlation test indicated similarities between the elements Ba, Sr, in addition to indicating the proximity between the Mn and the Cd. Clusters between Fe and Zn with Sr and Co with Mn were also detected.

D’abord sur une échelle réduite puis sur une large échelle la contrebande du kpayo, essence et produits pétroliers occupent aujourd’hui un nombre de plus en plus grand de vendeurs, on estime que 100 000 personnes sont impliquées dans ce trafic du Nigeria au Bénin. Il revêt plusieurs aspects selon qu’il emprunte la route maritime, le fleuve ou la route. Ce transport génère un grand nombre de petits métiers que nous évoquons dans la thèse qu’il s’agisse d’apporter les bidons sur la plage, de transformer les scooters ou les camions. Plus que tout, cette activité suppose aussi un réseau souvent d’origine familiale, mais aussi des accointances avec du personnel des emplois régaliens de la République. Les recherches empiriques réalisées sur des territoires aussi variés et circonscrits que peuvent l’être une station-service, un village lacustre, un marché frontalier, un débarcadère, un entrepôt ont permis d’appréhender les conditions d’approvisionnement des contrebandiers, identifier les modalités d’acheminement des produits pétroliers vers le Bénin, saisir les stratégies de contournement des contrebandiers et les risques encourus tout au long de leur trajet, examiner les interactions entre les transporteurs et les forces de l’ordre à l’occasion du passage des barrières de contrôle, apprécier l’animation des marchés et enfin cerner le rôle des différents acteurs en présence. L’analyse des réseaux marchands, des parcours biographiques, des stratégies d’acteurs, des logiques d’accumulation et des rapports de l’économie informelle à la loi situe cette recherche au croisement de l’anthropologie économique, de la géographie du commerce, de la sociologie de la précarité, et de la sociologie politique. / First of all on a small scale, then further along, on a much larger scale, the kpayo trade which means smuggling of gas and other oil products from Nigeria to Bénin, depend on almost 100 000 persons living on this sale activity. This trade might be quite different if gas transported by means of ships on the sea, by the river, or by scooters or trucks on the road. This kind of informal trade gives way to different kinds of odd jobs we mention in the PHD: bringing the jerrycans to the beach, reshaping scooters and trucks in a garage. Most of all this illicit activity needs some kind of a kinship network and political pull among the police and customs officers of the Republic. Empirical research has been done in different fields such as a gas station, a seaside village, a market on the country border, a landing stage, a warehouse, it led to the comprehension of the way smugglers are supplied. I was thus able to understand the process by which gas was transported from Nigeria to the Republic of Bénin, and see all the byways the smugglers are used to take, and the risks taken all along the journey. I examined the interaction process between the racketeers and the police when they passed a checkpoint; see how the markets were busy, and last managed to see how the the different roles of subjects interact. The racketeers networks analysis, life stories, different action strategies, the way they accumulate and the study of informal economy related to law contribute in this PhD to an essay in economic- anthropology with geographic standpoints, and a sociological analysis of precarious lives and Big Shots.

在民國七十六年十一月二日政府正式開放大陸探親後，兩岸人民往來逐漸頻繁，隨著兩岸人民的交流，對一群隨國民政府來臺的老榮民而言，此再回故鄉距離國民政府撤退大陸已經近四十餘年。兩岸從一九七０年代末期以來，在經濟與社會各方面交流日趨密切與頻繁，在開放探親後，雖屬同文同種，但在兩岸間文化、生活、語言上之差異，兩岸通婚人數逐年增加，從以往的偷渡犯罪，漸變為合法入境而產生另一種犯罪模式的轉變，所衍生各種犯罪問題亦日趨增加，其對國內安全議題影響亦逐漸擴大。 當前影響國家安全之因素，主要有國際環境、兩岸關係與國內形勢等三個面向，除傳統性安全的武力威脅外，許多非傳統性威脅亦逐漸增加，例如：大陸地區人民偷渡來臺、假結婚真賣淫、人口販運、毒品、走私、兩岸組織犯罪、傳染病等問題，均實值得做深入探討與研究，這些問題均對國內社會環境造成變化，增加維持社會治安與社會秩序的內政成本。 全球化的趨勢，在不影響國家安全的前提下，建構兩岸合作打擊犯罪之機制，實刻不容緩，臺灣應儘速尋求兩岸合作之可行模式，本文共分為幾部分，先經由政府對大陸政策實施迄今與執行層面做檢視與探討為出發點，並輔以對探親、結婚及近來討論開放觀光等議題和相關法令做全盤、統整性之分析。再來就相關犯罪所衍生之問題，在移民機關及警察機關間之協調聯繫和在執法上遇到之困境做分析，最後，本研究就合法來臺之大陸人民犯罪問題為研究主軸，並就相關問題提出個人之看法與建議，希能提供就國家安全機制上更完整之參考。 / The Republic of China launched an open policy for people to go abroad to China and visit with their relatives on November 2, 1987, thus the relationship between cross-straits becomes closer and closer since then. To those veterans who followed the Kuomintang government’s move to Taiwan in 1949, it has been almost 40-year- separation for them to make a return voyage. Moreover, since the end of 1970s, the interactions between Taiwan and China have become closer and more frequent in all aspects of economics and society. After the said policy, although the cultural, living, and language difference still exists, the numbers of intermarriage mountain up year by year. As a result, the crime pattern has gradually changed from previous illegal immigration to legal entering but crime enhancing. The crime pattern transformation derives more and more homeland security problems. Nowadays, the factors of influence upon homeland security are mainly related to international environment, cross-strait relationship and domestic situation. Except China’s traditional threat of force to Taiwan, gradually, much other kinds of untraditional threat arise, such as human smuggling, prostitution under the disguise of marriage, drug trafficking, cross-strait organization crime, infectious diseases and etc. Not only do the aforementioned issues influence local social environment but also increase the cost both of social security and public order. Under the trend of globalization, accordingly, there is an eager need for Taiwan to establish possible crime-fighting corporate system with China without influencing Taiwan’s homeland security. The purpose of this study is three-fold. First, based on Taiwan’s “China policy”, this study examines and reviews the policy implementation and effects, then further discusses and analyzes comprehensive issues and related regulations, like relatives visiting, intermarriage, and opening Taiwan to mainland tourism which topic has recently been discussed enthusiastically. Second, aiming at criminal derivatives, this study discusses the difficult situation for said policy communication and implementation between the Competent Authority of immigration, National Immigration Agency and Police Department when dealing with related crime. Finally, focusing on the crime issues of people who enter Taiwan legally from China, this study tends to launch a policy suggestion for reference as setting up a well-designed homeland security system.

Why does the European Union focus on controlling irregular immigration at the external border? The emphasis presents a paradox as most irregular migrants in the EU arrive through legal channels and subsequently overstay or violate the conditions of their visa. In order to explore this paradox, the thesis examines two case studies, Malta and Cyprus. As small island states on the Union’s southern periphery, the two are ostensibly unable to resist the transfer of migration controls and asylum responsibility to the EU’s external borders. Yet, employing nonmaterial power, namely by highlighting the perceived migration pressures they are under, the two states have successfully attracted significant financial and practical support from other member states. In doing so, they have influenced policymaking within EU migration governance, but have ultimately reinforced the emphasis on controlling irregular immigration at the external border by portraying the phenomenon as a crisis. This thesis not only sheds light on the interaction between the EU and the two states under investigation, but combines three levels of analysis – the regional, national, and local. The crisis narrative detrimentally affects the migrant and refugee populations as it encourages the adoption of restrictive and deterrent measures rather than ensuring access to rights and long-term integration. Nevertheless, this population is not without agency. It is their individual decisions to move across national borders without state authorisation that in the aggregate both compels states into dialogue about the issue and provides the basis for the dynamic between the EU and these two member states.

La J’farra, région traversée par la frontière tuniso-libyenne constitue le territoire historique des confédérations tribales ; les Werghemmas et les Nouaïels. Depuis près d’un siècle, elle connaît un ensemble de mutations qui affectent aussi bien les modes d’exploitation des ressources que le paysage. D’une région principalement pastorale, dominée par une organisation sociale tribale et nomade, la J’farra a connu une période de marginalité économique avant de devenir, depuis l’année 1989 la terre de la contrebande. Toutefois, malgré l’expansion spectaculaire des activités informelles, la J’farra n’est pas uniquement une aire de tolérance établie par les autorités, ni une zone d’exemption économique ou d’exception juridique, mais un territoire où s’articulent des revendications émanant des groupes tribaux locaux, des formes de subversion de la frontière, des activités informelles de diverses formes inhérentes à la mondialisation des échanges et des représentations symboliques ancrées dans les valeurs du passé. La frontière, jadis infranchissable, a contribué à la déstructuration des territoires tribaux, au dépérissement des modes de valorisation des ressources locales. Cet état de fait s’est aussi accompagné par des politiques de sédentarisation des anciens nomades qui ont certes atteint des seuils relativement avancés, mais ne sont jamais parvenus à éradiquer les anciennes constructions territoriales et à dissoudre les identités qui leur étaient afférentes. Cette situation inachevée a permis, lorsque les réseaux tribaux locaux ont réussi à créer une nouvelle réalité économique grâce aux activités informelles autour de la frontière, que s’engage un début de re-territorialisation inverse. Les réseaux sont animés principalement par une catégorie particulière ; les aâmem. Toutefois, le territoire émergeant dans la J’farra n’est pas homogène et donne lieu à une série d’affrontements. La transgression de la frontière, la banalisation de son franchissement par les descendants des anciens nomades, la réactivation des anciennes solidarités tribales au sein de réseaux commerciaux informels transfrontaliers et l’intégration au marché globalisé, ouvrent la voie à la réinvention, selon de nouvelles pratiques, de l’ancienne « conception de vivre » de la population de la J’farra et de son territoire. / The J'farra, the region crossed by the Tunisian-Libyan border, is the history land of tribal confederations; the Werghemmas and the Nouaïels. For nearly a century, she knows a set of mutations that affect both types of resource and the landscape. In a predominantly pastoral region, dominated by a tribal and nomadic social organization, the J'farra experienced a period of economic marginality before becoming, since the year 1989 the earth of smuggling. However, the J'farra is not only an area of tolerance established by the authorities or an exemption zone economic or legal exception, but a territory of structured claims from local tribal groups, forms of subversion of the border, informal activities of various forms inherent in the globalization of trade and symbolic representations based on the values of the past. When the local tribal networks have succeeded in creating a new economic reality through informal activities around the border, agrees that an early re-territorialisation around. The networks are driven primarily by a particular category, the aâmem. The aâmem have shown themselves capable of inventing alternative forms of supervision that have replaced those of the state and managed to "make land". However, the territory in the emerging J'farra is not homogeneous and leads to a series of clashes. In addition, the network is a system j'farri action and authority, and it is characterized by a hierarchy and inequality among its members, generating divisions among its members. The activity of the informal network of transnational j'farri not working in opposition to the State territory as against the state institution to which he tries to escape. The transgression of the border, the trivialization of its crossing by the descendants of ancient nomads, the reactivation of old tribal solidarity within border informal trade networks and the integration to the globalized market, paving the way for the reinvention, according to new practices , the former "conceiving of life" of the population of J'farra and its territory.

In this dissertation, I investigate the role of oil resources and economic and political institutional quality on the economic performance of Iran. To this end, I examine four related themes. First and foremost, I provide a detailed picture of the economic structure of Iran and compare its performance with other oil and non-oil economies of the Middle East and the Middle Easterb region. As we get a clear picture of the relative economic position of Iran in the MENA region, I go further into macroeconomic analyses of oil wealth effects on the Iranian economy. The second theme investigated in this dissertation is the interaction of political power structure with oil rents and their effects on Iranian economic growth. This study is the first examination which takes into consideration political factionalism interaction with oil rents in the case of Iran. The results show that oil resources have a direct positive effect on economic growth in Iran. However, the interaction effect of factionalism (as a proxy for political asymmetry degree) with oil rents is negative and significant. The third theme which is examined in this study is illegal trade in Iran. This topic is also related to natural resource management in Iran. A large number of fuel products smuggled from Iran are due to heavy subsidies within the country. In this study, I measure the amount of illegal trade in Iran, identifying the major causes and indicators of smuggling. The average of illegal trade in Iran’s total trade is 13%. The value of annual illegal trade, on average, is within the range of $ 2.5 - 3 billion. The fourth topic which is examined in this dissertation is macroeconomic populism in Iran. The main source of financing populism spending in Iran is the oil revenues. Therefore, it is connected to the management of natural resources.

The text aims to identify aspects that should be considered in preparing the State’s institutions to effectively combat human trafficking of a transnational nature. It addresses four main issues. First, it notices the specific problems of foreign human trafficking victims, which could be confused or overlapped with other categories, such as migrant smuggling and illegal migrant status. Subsequently, it develops three fundamental arguments that give primacy to their status as victims of human trafficking and their specialized attention from a human rights perspective. Thirdly, it provides guidelines on the elements that should constitute this approach from the specific rights of foreign victims of human trafficking. Finally, the Peruvian legal and institutional framework is analyzed, as well as its possibilities and challenges for adequate attention to foreign victims of trafficking. / El texto apunta a determinar los aspectos que deben ser considerados para perfeccionar el funcionamiento del aparato estatal con el fin de luchar efectivamente contra la trata de personas de carácter transnacional y para orientarlo por los principios propios de un enfoque de derechos humanos con respecto a la víctima de trata de personas. Aborda cuatro puntos centrales. Primero, advierte la problemática particular de las víctimas de trata extranjeras, al ser proclive su confusión o superposición con otras categorías, como la de tráfico de migrantes y migrante en condición irregular. Posteriormente, se desarrollan tres argumentos fundamentales que otorgan primacía a su condición de víctima de trata y a su atención especializada desde un enfoque de derechos humanos. Como tercer punto, se brindan directrices sobre los elementos que deben componer este enfoque, a partir de los derechos específicos de víctimas de trata extranjeras. Por último, se analiza el marco normativo e institucional peruano, y sus posibilidades y retos para lograr una atención adecuada a las víctimas de trata extranjera.

The southern Mozambique/ South Africa borderland is a landscape epitomised by fluctuation, contradiction and constant transformation. It is a world betwixt-and-between Mozambique and South Africa. The international border, imposed on the landscape more than a century ago, gives life to a new world that stretches across and away from it. The inhabitants of this transitional zone constantly shape and reshape their own identities vis-à-vis people on the opposite and same side of the border. This border, which was delineated in 1875, was to separate the influence spheres of Portugal and Britain in south-east Africa. On the ground it divided the once strong and unified Mabudu-Tembe (Tembe-Thonga) chiefdom. At first the border was only a line on a map. With time, however, it became infused with social and cultural meaning as the dividing line between two new worlds. This was exacerbated by Portuguese and British colonial administration on opposite sides of the border, Apartheid in South Africa and socialist modernisation and war and displacement in Mozambique. All these events and factors created cultural fragmentation and disunion between the northern and southern sides of the borderland. By the end of the Mozambican War in 1992 the northern side of the borderland was populated by displaced refugees, demobilised soldiers and bandits, as well as returnees from neighbouring countries. Many of these people did not have any ancestral ties to the land nor kinship ties to its earlier inhabitants. Whereas a common Thonga identity had previously united people on both sides of the border, South African policies of Apartheid increasingly promoted the Zulu language and culture on the southern side of the border. The end of warfare in Mozambique and of Apartheid in South Africa facilitated contact across the border. Social contact between the inhabitants of the borderland is furthermore fostered by various economic opportunities offered by the border, such as cross-border trade and smuggling. The increase in social and economic contact has in turn dissolved differences between the inhabitants of the borderland and promoted homogeneity and unity across the political divide. Fragmentation and homogeneity characterises daily life in the borderland. Inhabitants of the frontier-zone play these forces off against each other, now emphasising the differences across the border, later emphasising the similarities. The borderland is a world of multiple identities, where ethnicity, citizenship and identity, already fluid and contextual concepts in their own rights, become even more so as people constantly define and redefine themselves in this transitional environment. / Thesis (DPhil (Anthropology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Anthropology and Archaeology / unrestricted