Não consta resumo na publicação. / The gene encoding actin in the cellulolytic filamentus fungus Trichoderma reesei has been isolated and sequenced. The nucleotide sequence reveals that the gene is composed of 6 exons separated by 5 introns within the coding region. The positions of the introns were predicted by comparison of sequence homology to the genes coding for actin with known amino acid sequence and by identification of splice-site signal sequences. The actin protein of Trichoderma reesei shows extensive homology to the actins of other fungi E. nidulans, 95% , T. lanuginosus, 92% and S. pombae. The T. reesei actin promoter has a CT-rich region, CAAT and GC. There is no obvious TATA sequence in the T. reesei actin promoter. The absence of TATA-like sequence were also observed in anothers genes of T. reesei. An important aspect in molecular biology of filamentous fungi is the analysis, under a specific metabolic events, of the mechanism(s) regulating the expression of constitutive and induced genes. The filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei is considered to be one of the most efficient producer of cellulase, and it serves as a model system for enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis. Expression of the cellulase genes are stringently regulated by the carbon source. Growth on cellulose results in induction of the cellulase transcripts, whereas glucose strongly represses their expression. The availability of a constitutive expressed genes of T. reesei provides not only important information regarding the molecular biology of the fungi, but also is essential for a better understanding of the mechanism(s) controlling the expression of the cellulase transcripts. Under inductive process of the of the major cellulase transcript (cbh1) and its repression by glucose, actin mRNA is constitutively expressed. The present results should be useful for further structural and functional analysis of the elements involved in inductive and constitutive expression of cellulase and actin transcripts.

Superóxido dismutases (SODs) são metaloenzimas que convertem o ânion superóxido em oxigênio molecular (O2) e peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2). A presença de metal nessas enzimas está diretamente relacionada com seus mecanismos de catálise e com suas estruturas tridimensionais. Evolucionariamente, FeSOD e MnSOD podem ter evoluído de um gene ancestral comum, porque possuem sequências homólogas e estruturas cristalográficas sobreponíveis. Entretanto, a nível catalítico, ambas as proteínas divergiram o suficiente para que seus metais não possam ser intercambiáveis, produzindo uma enzima funcional, indicando que essas proteínas possuem alta especificidade por metal. O objetivo deste projeto de pesquisa é Identificar os determinantes estruturais do ajuste fino da especificidade por metal de MnSOD e FeSOD. Inicialmente, pretendese selecionar resíduos para mutagênese sítio-dirigida em TrMnSOD e TbFeSODB2, a partir de análise de acoplamento estatístico (SCA). Em seguida, mutantes serão construídos, expressos, purificados e cristalizados. A estrutura tridimensional dos mutantes será resolvida por cristalografia e sua atividade enzimática determinada, bem como a acomodação estrutural dos metais por Resonância Paramagnética Eletrônica. Nossa hipótese de trabalho é que através de SCA é possível elencar resíduos de aminoácidos candidatos para mutagênese sítio-dirigida para desenhar novas SODs, com características intermediárias de ligação por Fe/Mn, como possibilidade de interconversão de especificidade, caminhando na história evolutiva dessas moléculas. / Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are metalloenzymes that convert the superoxide anion in molecular oxygen (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The metal in the catalytic center of such enzymes is directly related to their catalysis mechanisms and tridimensional structures. Evolutionarily, FeSOD and MnSOD may have evolved from a common ancestor, because both proteins have homologous primary sequences and superposable crystallographic structures. However, at the catalytic level, both proteins diverged sufficiently to prevent interchange of their metallic centers, which would generate non-functional enzymes, indicating that these proteins have high metal specificity. The objective of this research project is to identify structural determinants of Fe/MnSODs necessary to metal specificity. We intend to use statistical coupling analysis (SCA) to select amino acid residues for site-directed mutagenesis in TrMnSOD e TbFeSODB2. Mutant genes will be constructed and their proteins expressed, purified and crystallized. The tridimensional structure of such mutants will be solved by X-ray crystallography and their enzymatic activities determined, as well as their electron paramagnetic resonance spectra. We hypothesize that SCA is useful to identify amino acid candidates for site-directed mutagenesis to design new SODs with intermediated Fe/Mn specificity, and even metal specificity interconversion, by studying the evolutionary history of these proteins.

Les pertes alimentaires mondiales se chiffrent à environ un tiers des aliments destinés à la consommation humaine, soit environ 1,3 milliards de tonnes par an (FAO). Une large fraction de ces pertes est due aux altérations microbiologiques des denrées alimentaires. L’utilisation de produits phytosanitaires reste aujourd’hui la solution la plus largement utilisée en agriculture pour limiter ces pertes. Cependant, avec le plan EcoPhyto 2, le gouvernement français a pour objectif de réduire de 50% l’usage des pesticides chimiques d’ici 2025, en particulier en promouvant l’émergence du biocontrôle. Pour développer cette approche, il est cependant nécessaire de comprendre, pour mieux les maitriser, les mécanismes sous-jacents. Les différents modes d’action de biocontrôle par les microorganismes décrits sont la stimulation des défenses naturelles des plantes, la production de substances antimicrobienne et la compétition nutritionnelle. L'originalité de ce projet est d'intégrer le mode de vie en biofilm dans les mécanismes de bioprotection (compétition spatiale et nutritionnelle, libération de principes antimicrobiens). Dans la filière Française des champignons de couche (Agaricus bisporus), l’agent de biocontrôle utilisé depuis 2008 par plus de 80 % de la filière, est Bacillus subtilis QST713. Ce biofongicide montre une nette efficacité contre Trichoderma aggressivum, la principale moisissure à l’origine de pertes économiques lors de la culture d’A. bisporus. Afin d’accompagner la filière dans cette voie biologique, nous avons entrepris de séquencer et étudier le génome de cette souche, afin de déterminer son potentiel de biocontrôle et sa capacité à former des biofilms. Nous avons également évalué l’impact de ce biofongicide sur la dynamique des communautés microbiennes du compost de culture d’A. bisporus exposé ou non à T. aggressivum. Enfin, l'étude de la reprogrammation cellulaire de cet agent de biocontrôle lors de sa culture en micromodèles axéniques, nous a permis une meilleure compréhension des phénomènes de colonisation des substrats et d'inhibition des flores indésirables. Ce projet a permis d’enrichir les connaissances vis-à-vis des mécanismes de biocontrôle dans la filière des champignons et pourra permettre une possible application à d’autres filières agricoles. / Worldwide, food losses amount for about one-third of food for human consumption, 1.3 billion tons per year (FAO). A large fraction of these losses are due to microbiological alterations. The use of phytosanitary products remains today the most widely used solution in agriculture to limit these losses. However, with the EcoPhyto 2 plan, the French government aims to reduce the use of chemical pesticides by 50% by 2025, in particular by promoting the emergence of biocontrol. To develop this approach, it is necessary to understand the underlying mechanisms. The different modes of action of biocontrol by the microorganisms described are the stimulation of the natural defenses of the plants, the production of antimicrobial substances and the nutritional competition. The originality of this project is to integrate the biofilm mode of life into bioprotection mechanisms (spatial and nutritional competition, release of antimicrobial principles). In the French sector of the button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) culture, the biocontrol agent used since 2008 by more than 80% of the sector, is Bacillus subtilis QST713. This biofungicide shows a clear efficacy against Trichoderma aggressivum, the main mold causing economic losses during the cultivation of A. bisporus. To accompany the sector in this biological pathway, we have sequenced and studied the genome of this strain, in order to determine its biocontrol potential and its ability to form biofilms. We also evaluated the impact of this biofungicide on the dynamics of microbial communities in A. bisporus culture compost exposed or not to T. aggressivum. Finally, the study of the cellular reprogramming of this biocontrol agent during the culture in axenic micromodels allowed us a better understanding of the substrates colonization phenomenon and the inhibition of undesirable flora. This project will enrich the knowledge of the biocontrol mechanisms used in the mushroom industry and may allow a possible application to other agricultural sectors.

Expanding global populations, unequal food distribution and disease pressure suggest food poverty is increasing. Consequently, much attention is focussed on alternative natural methods in which to increase agricultural yield. Previously, it was observed that Trichoderma hamatum strain GD12 and its respective N-acetyl-β-D-Glucosamine mutant ∆Thnag:hph promoted plant biomass and fitness that, as a result, may provide a credible natural alternative to synthetic fertilisers. However, on a molecular level, the manner in which this is achieved has not been fully elucidated. In this thesis, I report the biofertiliser effect of GD12 and mutant ∆Thnag::hph once applied to autoclaved peat microcosms as sole applications. Furthermore, I demonstrate the biocontrol ability of GD12 when co-inoculated with Sclerotinia sclerotiorum or Rhizoctonia solani and reveal, that once mycelium co-inoculation has occurred, GD12 increase plant biomass and provide protection; whilst ∆Thnag::hph does not. Consequently, I challenged the biocontrol effects of Trichoderma metabolite extract where I validate that both Trichoderma wild type GD12 and mutant ∆Thnag::hph are incapable of suppressing pathogen growth. Subsequently, I characterised the up-regulated signatures associated with GD12 and ∆Thnag::hph using LC-MS techniques where unique compounds were discovered from each strain of Trichoderma. In conclusion, I provide evidence that N-acetyl-β-D-Glucosamine mutation bring about metabolomic changes that affect the fungal secretome which, in turn, alters plant phenotype, fitness and germination. Furthermore, I have shown that these effects are species specific and depend upon pathogen, plant and fungal properties. However, further investigations are needed to fully elucidate the compound(s) responsible for biocontrol and biofertilisation; especially plant-specific effects that take place as a consequence of fungal activity.

Thesis (MSc (Microbiology))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / Complete degradation of cellulose produces mainly glucose, which can be fermented to ethanol. Therefore cellulose presents an abundant renewable energy resource for the production of an alternative, environmentally friendly, transportation fuel. Enzymatic degradation of cellulose is achieved by the synergistic action of three cellulase enzyme groups: endoglucanases, exoglucanases and -glucosidases. However, cellulolytic organisms do not produce significant amounts of ethanol. Therefore, a need has arisen to develop a recombinant microorganism with the ability to produce cellulolytic enzymes, hydrolyze cellulose and ferment the resulting sugars to ethanol in a single process step, referred to as “Consolidated Bioprocessing” (CBP). This would provide a cost-effective, economically feasible strategy for the production of bioethanol. The naturally fermentative yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is often used as host for the expression of recombinant proteins due to several characteristics, including its robustness in industrial processes, the well developed genetic tools available for manipulation and its proven safety status. A number of cellulase genes have previously been successfully expressed by recombinant S. cerevisiae strains. In this study, all three components of the cellulase system were co-expressed in S. cerevisiae to test the ability of the yeast to effectively produce the heterologous proteins, and consequently produce enough glucose for growth on an amorphous cellulosic substrate. The Trichoderma reesei endoglucanase gene egII (Cel5A) was successfully expressed by a S. cerevisiae Y294 strain. Recombinant EGII displayed activities of 19.6 nkat.ml-1 and 22.3 nkat.ml-1 towards CMC and barley -glucan, respectively. The major endoglucanase gene, egI (Cel7B) from T. reesei was subjected to random mutagenesis by propagating the egI-containing plasmid in an E. coli mismatch repair deficient strain. Screening of S. cerevisiae transformants revealed a strain, S. cerevisiae Y294[pLEM1], with improved levels of endoglucanase activity (21.8 nkat.ml-1), compared to S. cerevisiae Y294[pAZ40], expressing the wild type gene (10.3 nkat.ml-1). Through subcloning of the mutated ENO1 promoter region and the mutated egI gene fragment, it was established that the mutations located in both the promoter- and gene sequences were responsible for the improved levels of activity displayed by S. cerevisiae Y294[pLEM1]. The egII gene and the altered egI gene were co-expressed with a codon optimised T. reesei cellobiohydrolase (sCBHI) and a -glucosidase from Saccharomycopsis fibuligera. This resulted in a reduction in endoglucanase levels, possibly due to the metabolic burden placed on the yeast by co-expressing the different cellulases. The hydrolysis products produced by cellulase co-expressing strains were cellotriose, cellobiose and glucose, although the glucose yield was insufficient to enable growth on cellulose as sole carbon source. As the major hydrolysis product was cellobiose, it is likely that a bottleneck exists at its conversion to glucose, suggesting inadequate -glucosidase activity. This study has provided insight into co-expression of cellulase enzymes by the yeast S. cerevisiae. The knowledge obtained could be applied in optimizing cellulase cocktails for efficient cellulose degradation and eventual production of ethanol by recombinant yeast. It has also demonstrated the applicability of random mutagenesis for improving the activity of cellulases.

This project aimed investigated cellulase in-situ production for large-scale on-farm production of lignocellulosic biofuel. Cellulase activity and glucose released by T. reesei with corn stover and wheat bran as co-substrates for solid state cultivation (SSC) were examined. Co-cultivation has previously increased T. reesei cellulase, but corn stover and wheat bran have not been co-cultivated (Dhillon, Oberoi et al. 2011). This work compared cellulase activity and glucose concentration of corn stover co-cultivated with 0-40% wheat bran in high solids. Samples with at least 20% wheat bran exhibited increased cellulase activity. However, the average glucose concentration without wheat bran was 3.29 g/L compared to 16.7 g/L with wheat bran. Glucose released by T. reesei on pretreated corn stover with 0-40% wheat bran was compared at the optimal temperatures for fungal growth and for cellulase activity after SSC. Previous research has rarely used cellulase from SSC to hydrolyze lignocellulose. Following SSC of T. reesei at 30°C for seven days, samples were warmed to 50°C for five days. Glucose concentration increased to 12.1 and 32.7 g/L for samples with and without wheat bran. This strategy could reduce lignocellulosic fuel production costs by eliminating need for commercial cellulase and is promising for efficient cellulose hydrolysis.

Trichoderma species are soil-borne filamentous fungi widely utilized for their many plant health benefits, such as conferring improved growth, disease resistance and abiotic stress tolerance to their hosts. Many Trichoderma species are able to produce the auxin phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and its production has been suggested to promote root growth. Here we show that the production of IAA is strain dependent and diverse external stimuli are associated with its production. In in vitro assays, Arabidopsis primary root length was negatively affected by the interaction with some Trichoderma strains. In soil experiments, a continuum effect on plant growth was shown and this was also strain dependent. In plate assays, some strains of Trichoderma spp. inhibited the expression of the auxin reporter gene DR5 in Arabidopsis primary roots but not secondary roots. When Trichoderma spp. and A. thaliana were physically separated, enhancement of both shoot and root biomass, increased root production and chlorophyll content were observed, which strongly suggested that volatile production by the fungus influenced the parameters analyzed. Trichoderma strains T. virens Gv29.8, T. atroviride IMI206040, T. sp. "atroviride B" LU132, and T. asperellum LU1370 were demonstrated to promote plant growth through volatile production. However, contrasting differences were observed with LU1370 which had a negative effect on plant growth in soil but a positive effect in plate assays. Altogether our results suggest that the mechanisms and molecules involved in plant growth promotion by Trichoderma spp. are multivariable and are affected by the environmental conditions.

Estudos das interações de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares (FMAs) e outros microrganismos da rizosfera têm documentado o efeito do FMA nas populações destes microrganismos e vice-versa. Espécies do gênero Trichoderma são usadas no controle biológico de patógenos de raiz. Este fungo produz uma série de enzimas extracelulares que degradam a parede de células fúngicas, sendo este um importante fator de biocontrole. Bactérias promotoras do crescimento de plantas, como algumas Pseudomonas do grupo fluorescente, também podem atuar no biocontrole de patógenos de raiz, produzindo substâncias antagônicas ou sideróforos. Além disso, é conhecida a importância da matéria orgânica como fator de melhoramento do solo, suprimindo patógenos do solo e da rizosfera. Uma das principais doenças de citros é a podridão de raiz causada por Phytophthora parasitica, que ocorre na sementeira. Assim, os objetivos foram estudar as interações que ocorrem na rizosfera e na planta hospedeira quando da presença concomitante de P. parasitica, FMAs e agentes de controle biológico, e, avaliar o efeito de diferentes substratos em tais interações microbianas, utilizando-se o porta-enxerto limoeiro Cravo (Citrus limonia). Com o objetivo de selecionar bactérias eficientes no controle do fungo causador de doença de raiz de citros, P. parasitica, foram realizados 3 experimentos in vitro (meio B de King, meio cenoura e sementes de trigo) e um in vivo, nos quais foram utilizados 69 isolados de Pseudomonas spp. e um isolado de P. parasitica. Outro experimento teve finalidade de observar a interação na planta em substrato inerte, sendo os tratamentos: com e sem FMA (Glomus intraradices com pré-colonização- GI pré ou G. intraradices sem a pré-colonização- GI), com e sem os agentes de controle biológico (T. harzianum e B. subtilis) e com e sem o patógeno (P. parasitica). Um segundo experimento de interação em esquema fatorial 3 x 3 x 2 constou de 2 agentes de controle biológico (T. harzianum e B. subtilis) e um controle (sem agente) X 2 FMAs (G. intraradices e G. etunicatum) e uma testemunha (sem FMA) X com e sem P. parasitica com inoculação anterior, posterior e concomitante do FMA e dos agentes de controle biológico. Um último experimento foi montado como fatorial 2 x 2 x 2 x 3: com e sem T. harzianum X com e sem G. intraradices X com e sem P. parasitica X 3 substratos (adição de 2 tipos de matéria orgânica-esterco e plantmax e sem adição de matéria orgânica). Para o experimento in vitro, os isolados bacterianos A5, 52B, I5, I6, I7 E 73 foram antagônicos ao patógeno nos três experimentos realizados. A maioria dos isolados bacterianos, 78%, mostrou um certo controle do patógeno in vivo, já que a massa da matéria fresca das raízes não foi afetada pela presença de P. parasitica. No experimento empregando substrato inerte (areia) houve tendência de controle da Phytophthora por todos os tratamentos realizados. A colonização radicular nas plantas sem patógeno foi significativamente maior quando realizada a inoculação prévia do FMA (GI pré). Trichoderma diminuiu significativamente a colonização do FMA, quando inoculado previamente. No segundo experimento de interação, o crescimento da planta foi favorecido pela inoculação do FMA e pelos agentes de controle biológico inoculados anterior ou concomitante ao FMA, observando-se que estes antagonistas não afetaram a colonização radicular. Houve tendência de controle da doença nos tratamentos 1° Tri/GE, 1° GI/Tri, GI+ Tri, 1° GI/Bac e somente Trichoderma e Bacillus. No último experimento realizado o crescimento das plantas colonizadas por G. intraradices e GI+ Tri, tanto na ausência como na presença de Phytophthora, foi significativamente maior, nos três substratos empregados. As plantas micorrizadas, tanto na presença quanto na ausência de Trichoderma, controlaram P. parasitica / Studies on interactions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) and other rhizospheric microorganisms have shown the effect of AMF on these microorganisms and vice versa. Species of the genus Trichoderma have been used to control root pathogens. This fungus produces some extracellular enzymes that degrade fungal cell wall, what is considered an important factor of biocontrol. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, such as some Pseudomonas of the fluorescent group, can act in root pathogens biocontrol, producing antagonist substances or siderophoros. Besides, it is known the importance of organic matter as a factor of soil improvement, decreasing soil and rhizosphere pathogens. One of the major citrus diseases is the root rot caused by Phytophthora parasitica. Our purposes were to study the interactions that may occur in rhizosphere and host plant in the presence of P. parasitica, AMFs and biological control agents; to evaluate the effect of different substrates in this microbe interaction and to select rhizospheric bacteria to control P. parasitica in vitro (B King media, carrot media and wheat seeds) and in vivo, using Citrus limonia. The first experiment had the purpose of evaluating the microbe interactions in plants, using an inert substrate, testing the effect of AMF (Glomus intraradices inoculated at seed nursery- GI before transplanting, or, G. intraradices inoculated at transplanting- GI), biological control agent (Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus subtilis) and the pathogen (P. parasitica). A second experiment had a factorial 3x3x2 completely randomized design, where the factors were: biological control agents (T. harzianum, B. subtilis and no agent), AMFs (G. intraradices, G. etunicatum and no AMF), P. parasitica (with and without), with previous, afterwards and concurrent inoculation of AMF and biological control agent. A last experiment had a factorial 2x2x2x3 completely randomized design, where the factors were: T. harzianum (with or without), G. intraradices (with or without), P. parasitica (with or without), substrates (soil with addition of 2 kinds of organic matter- dairy manure and plantmax- and no addition). The plant growth was enhanced by AMF and biological control agents inoculated previously or concurrently with AMF, observing that these antagonists did not affect the radicular colonization. There was disease control in treatments 1° Tri/GE, 1° GI/Tri, exclusively with Trichoderma and Bacillus inoculation. In vitro assays showed that Pseudomonas sp isolates 80S, A5 and I6 were antagonists to the pathogen. Most of the bacteria isolates, 78%, showed pathogen control in vivo and root weight was not affected by the presence of P. parasitica. When using inert substrate (sand) all treatments controlled P. parasitica. The radicular colonization with no pathogen inoculation was significantly higher with previous AMF inoculation. Trichoderma decreased significantly the AMF colonization when it was inoculated previously. Colonized plants by G. intraradices and GI+ Tri, inoculated or not with P. parasitica, showed a significantly higher growth in the 3 substrates tested. The mycorrhizal plants, in the presence or absence of Trichoderma, controlled P. parasitica.

Diversos estudos evidenciam dezenas de espécies de fungos de diferentes gêneros nas colônias de formigas-cortadeiras. No entanto, a procedência desses microrganismos ainda é incerta. Alguns desses podem ser endofíticos oriundos do material vegetal transportado para o ninho. Assim sendo, determinados fungos endofíticos possuem a capacidade de contaminar a colônia das cortadeiras ou influenciar no seu microbioma simbiótico. Com isso, os endófitos fúngicos têm potencial no controle de formigas-cortadeiras como parceiros mutualistas das plantas. Esse sistema simbiótico pode se tornar uma estratégia no manejo dessa importante praga dentro do ecossistema florestal. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial de colonização endofítica de mudas de Eucalyptus urophylla pelos fungos Escovopsis sp., Metarhizium anisopliae e Trichoderma strigosellum, e analisar, por meio da avaliação de características biométricas, a influência da inoculação desses microrganismos sobre o desenvolvimento das plantas. O delineamento adotado foi o inteiramente casualizado, usandose o esquema fatorial 4 x 3, com 15 repetições, sendo cada parcela constituída por uma muda. Os fatores foram: três espécies de fungos (Escovopsis sp., M. anisopliae, T. strigosellum) mais um controle e três métodos de inoculação (inoculação via foliar, inoculação via solo e inoculação via plântula). Para avaliação da colonização endofítica, utilizaram-se dez mudas, sendo cinco destinadas para avaliação das características biométricas. No método de inoculação via plântula, o fungo T. strigosellum foi isolado apenas nas raízes. Contudo, no método de inoculação via solo, além das raízes, esse fungo colonizou também o caule. As plantas de E. urophylla não foram colonizadas endofiticamente quando inoculadas pelo método de inoculação via foliar. As plantas inoculadas com o fungo T. strigosellum, pelo método de inoculação via plântula, apresentaram maiores valores nas características altura de plantas, número de folhas, massa seca da parte aérea e massa seca total quando comparado com os outros métodos de inoculação. Houve incremento também, por esse método, para a variável altura de plantas, quando comparadas às plantas controle e às inoculadas pelos fungos Escovopsis sp. e M. anisopliae. Dentre os fungos estudados, o isolado T. strigosellum colonizou endofiticamente o E. urophylla e influenciou positivamente no seu desenvolvimento, quando inoculado via plântula. / Several studies evidenced dozens of fungus species of different genera in the colonies of leafcutting ants. However, the origin of these microorganisms is still uncertain. Some of these may be endophytes from plant material transported to the nest. Thus, certain endophytic fungi have the ability to contaminate the leaf-cutting ant colony or influence its symbiotic microbiome. Thus, fungal endophytes have the potential to control leaf-cutting ants as mutual plant partners. This symbiotic system could become a strategy in the management of this important forest pest. The objective of this work was to evaluate the potential of endophytic colonization of Eucalyptus urophylla plants by fungi Escovopsis sp., Metarhizium anisopliae e Trichoderma strigosellum, and to analyze, by means of the evaluation of biometric characteristics, the influence of the inoculation of these microorganisms on the plant development. Experimental design was completely randomized, using the factorial scheme 4 x 3, with 15 replicates, each plot consisting of one plant. The factors were: three fungi species (Escovopsis sp., M. anisopliae, T. strigosellum) plus one control and three methods of inoculation (foliar inoculation, inoculation via soil and seedling inoculation). For the evaluation of endophytic colonization, ten plants were used; five of them were destined to evaluate the biometric characteristics. In the seedling inoculation method, the T. strigosellum fungus was isolated only in the roots. However, in the soil inoculation method, besides the roots, this fungus also colonized the stem. E. urophylla plants were not colonized endophiatically when inoculated by foliar inoculation method. The plants inoculated with T. strigosellum by the seedling inoculation method had higher values in the characteristics of plant height, number of leaves, root dry mass and total dry mass when compared to the other inoculation methods. There was also an increase, by this method, for the plant height variable, when compared to the control plants and those inoculated by the fungi Escovopsis sp. and M. anisopliae. Among the fungi studied, the isolate T. strigosellum endofitically colonized E. urophylla and positively influenced its development when inoculated via seedling.

Apesar do intenso interesse na regulação metabólica e evolução das vias produtoras de ATP, o porquê de a maioria dos microorganismos multicelulares metabolizarem glicose através de respiração, ao invés da fermentação, ainda permanece sem resposta. Um desses microorganismos é o fungo celulolítico Trichoderma reesei (Hypocrea jecorina. Usando análise EST e microarrays de cDNA, foi estabelecido, em T. reesei, que a expressão dos genes que codificam as enzimas do ciclo de TCA é programada de tal modo a favorecer a oxidação de piruvato pelo ciclo de TCA, ao invés de sua redução a etanol, através da fermentação. Além disso, os resultados indicam que acetaldeído pode ser convertido a acetato, e não a etanol, prevenindo a regeneração de NAD+, um produto chave requerido para o metabolismo anaeróbico. Os estudos também mostram que a maquinaria de controle regulatório por glicose, foi, provavelmente, objeto de pressão evolutiva, a qual dirigiu o fluxo metabólico à respiração, e não à fermentação. / Despite the intense interest in the metabolic regulation and evolution of the ATP-producing pathways, the long-standing question of why most multicellular microorganisms metabolize glucose by respiration rather than fermentation remains unanswered. One such microorganism is the cellulolytic fungus Trichoderma reesei (Hypocrea jecorina). Using EST analysis and cDNA microarrays, we find that in T. reesei expression of the genes encoding the enzymes of the TCA is programmed in a way that favors the oxidation of pyruvate via the TCA cycle rather than its reduction to ethanol by fermentation. Moreover, the results indicate that acetaldehyde may be channeled into acetate rather than ethanol, thus preventing the regeneration of NAD+, a pivotal product required for anaerobic metabolism. The studies also point out that the regulatory machinery controlled by glucose was most probably the target of evolutionary pressure that directed the flow of metabolites into respiratory metabolism rather than fermentation.