Questa tesi analizza le determinanti e gli effetti dell'innovazione attraverso un'analisi empirica. Nel primo capitolo viene analizzato l'impatto delle leggi di proprietà intellettuale sull'innovazione domestica in campo farmaceutico. Nel secondo capitolo, in cui vengono usati dati a livello di impresa, si studia la correlazione tra innovazione, export, produttività e vincoli finanziari. Infine nell'ultimo capitolo si studia l'effetto dell'innovazione domestica nell'attrarre investimenti diretti esteri. Mentre nel primo e nell'ultimo capitolo l'innovazione viene misurata come output, usando il numero di brevetti attribuiti ad un determinato paese, nel secondo capitolo vengono usati dati di R&D, e quindi di input di innovazione. / This dissertation analyses the determinants and the effects of innovation using an empirical analysis. In the first chapter the impact of Intellectual Property Rights on domestic innovation in the pharmaceutical sector is estimated. In the second chapter the correlation between innovation, export, productivity and financial constraint is studied at the firm level. Finally, in the last chapter the role of domestic innovation in attracting Foreign Direct Investments is estimated. While in the first and in the last chapter innovation output is considered, and innovation is proxied by patent data, in the second chapter innovation input is taken into account, and R&D data are used.

Decisions to reform pharmaceutical policy often involve trade-offs between competing social and commercial goals. Canada's Access to Medicines Regime (CAMR), a reform that permits compulsory licensing for the production and export of medicines to developing countries, aimed to reconcile these goals. Since it was passed in 2004, only one order of antiretroviral drugs, enough for 21,000 HIV/AIDS patients in Rwanda for one year, has been exported. Future use of the regime appears unlikely. This research aimed to examine the politics underlying the formation of CAMR. Parliamentary committee hearing transcripts from CAMR's legislative development (2004) and from CAMR's legislative review (2007) were analyzed using a content analysis technique to identify how stakeholders who participated in the debates framed the issues. These findings were subsequently analyzed using a framework of framing, institutions and interests to determine how these three dimensions shaped CAMR's final policy design. In 2004, policy debates were dominated by two themes: intellectual property rights and TRIPS compliance. Promoting human rights and the impact of CAMR on innovation were hardly discussed. With the Departments of Industry Canada and International Trade as the lead institutions, the goals of protecting intellectual property and ensuring good trade relations with the United States appear to have taken priority over encouraging generic competition to achieve drug affordability. The result was a more limited interpretation of patent flexibilities under the WTO Paragraph 6 Decision. The most striking finding is the minimal discussion over the potential barriers developing country beneficiaries might face when attempting to use compulsory licensing, including their reluctance to use TRIPS flexibilities, their desire to pursue technological development and the constraints inherent in the WTO Paragraph 6 Decision. Instead, these issues were raised in 2007, which can be partly accounted for by a greater representation of the interests of potential beneficiary country governments. While the Government attempted to strike a balance between drug affordability and intellectual property protection, it designed CAMR as a last resort measure. Increased input from the developing country beneficiaries and shifting to institutions where the right to health gets prioritized may lead to policies that better achieves affordable drug access.

Pharmaceutical drugs are often hailed as the poster child for the proposition that patents foster accelerated rates of innovation. This sentiment stems, in large part, from the significantly high research and development (R&D) costs endemic to the pharmaceutical sector. I argue that if the role of the patent regime is one of fostering higher amounts of investment in the R&D process, it is better served by a direct investment protection regime, where the protection does not depend upon whether or not the underlying idea behind the drug is 'new' and 'inventive', the two central tenets of patent law. Rather, any drug that successfully makes it past the regulatory filter ought to be entitled to protection, since its discovery and development entail significant investment and risk. Owing to the inadequacy of the current patent regime in appropriately protecting intensive pharmaceutical R&D investments from free-riders, I propose a comprehensive investment protection regime that protects all the investment costs incurred during the drug discovery and development process. Though similar to existing data protection regimes in some respects, it differs in others. Firstly, it enables a recovery of all R&D costs, and not only costs associated with clinical trials. Secondly, unlike patents and data exclusivity which offer uniform periods of protection, it rewards investments in a proportionate manner, wherein drug originators are entitled to protection against free-riders only until such time as they recoup their specific investments and earn a rate of return on investment that is dependent on the health value of the drug. Given that a pure market exclusivity based investment protection regime is likely to foster excessive pricing and subject the market to the dictates of a single firm, I advocate a compensatory liability model based on a novel cost sharing methodology, where follow-on entrants are free to manufacture the drug, but must pay a reasonable amount of compensation to the originator.

Företagshemligheter åtnjuter skydd enligt lag (1990:409) om skydd för företagshemligheter (FHL). Det centrala begreppet i definitionen av företagshemligheter är “information”, vilket medför att know-how kan åtnjuta skydd av FHL, förutsatt att den uppfyller lagens krav. För att harmonisera skyddet för företagshemligheter inom Europeiska unionen (EU) har direktivet om företagshemligheter antagits som senast ska träda i kraft den 9 juni 2018. Ändringarna som direktivet kan bidra till är främst att FHL tydliggörs i viktiga avseenden. Varken FHL eller direktivet ålägger någon part som har tagit del av företagshemligheter tystnadsplikt. I avtalsrelationer mellan företag tillämpas därför sekretessklausuler, vilket i regel avses ge ett starkare och effektivare skydd för företagshemligheter. Rättsläget om möjligheten att avtala om sekretess är emellertid osäkert, vilket kvarstår i direktivet. I uppsatsen framkommer att det i begreppet “know-how” innefattas kunskap och erfarenheter som finns hos företag men som ofta är kopplad till individer, framförallt teknisk know-how. Know-how konstateras innefatta kunskap som kan vara en del av grundstommen i ett företag eller optimera något som redan existerar i det, exempelvis en process. Den är inte underkastad några formkrav, bortsett från definitionen i Tekniköverföringsförordningen, och kan existera utan att företag har vidtagit åtgärder. Know-how kan således uppstå i det tysta. I begreppet “företagshemligheter” kan all information som cirkulerar i ett företag innefattas, förutsatt att informationen hålls hemlig och är kopplad till dess förmåga att konkurrera. Begreppen “know-how” och “företagshemligheter” skiljer sig således åt eftersom know-how i princip är knuten till individer medan “företagshemligheter” är knutet till företag. Det framkommer även i uppsatsen att direktivet, jämfört med FHL, inte medför ett ökat skydd för know-how i Sverige eftersom begreppet “information” i FHL inte vidgas. Direktivet medför emellertid ett ökat skydd för know-how i EU. Slutligen framkommer i analysen att proaktiva åtgärder och utvärdering av information är viktiga åtgärder för företag för att i framtiden skydda sin know-how. Sekretessklausuler är en möjlighet för företag att skydda know-how som inte omfattas av direktivet, och sedermera kommande FHL, i avtalsrelationer. En risk som företag borde ha i åtanke framöver är att åtgärder för att hemlighålla information kan komma att tillmätas olika betydelse beroende på i vilket land, och i enlighet med vilket lands lagstiftning, dessa vidtas i. / Trade secrets are protected by the Act on the Protection of Trade Secrets (1990:409) (PTS) in Sweden. The key notion to this law is “information”, which makes it possible for know-how to be covered by this law, provided that it fulfils the requirements of PTS. In order to harmonize the protection of trade secrets within the European Union (EU) the directive about Protection of Trade Secrets has been adopted, which is due to take effect latest by the 9th of June 2018. The amendments that the directive contributes to the PTS are primarily to clarify the PTS in important aspects. Neither the PTS, nor the directive imposes confidentiality upon any party who has granted trade secrets. Therefore, companies are adapting non-disclosure clauses in their business relationships, which generally mean a stronger and more effective protection of trade secrets. The legal situation about the possibility to arrange confidentiality is unclear. This unclearness remains in the directive. It appears that all knowledge and experience that exists in a company can be included in the concept “know-how”, but it is mostly connected to individuals, especially technical know-how. It is also noticed that know-how can form part of the ground in a company or optimize something that already exists in it, e.g. a process. Know-how is not subject to any formal requirements, apart from the requirements in the Technology Transfer Block Exemption Regulation, and may exist without any actions taken by companies. Thus, know-how can occur in the silence. Any information that is circulating in a company can be included in the concept “trade secrets”, provided that the information is kept secret and is linked to its ability to compete. The concepts “know-how” and “trade secrets” differ since know-how is mostly connected to individuals and trade secrets to companies. Furthermore, it appears that the directive, compared to the PTS, will not increase the protection of know-how in Sweden, since the directive does not enlarge the concept “information” in the PTS. However, the directive will increase the protection of know-how in the EU. Finally, it appears that proactive arrangements and evaluation of information will be important arrangements for companies in the future in order to protect their know-how. Non-disclosure clauses are a possibility for companies to protect their know-how that is not covered by the directive, and subsequently the forthcoming PTS, in contractual relations. A risk that companies should keep in mind in the future is that arrangements to keep information secret may be given different significance depending on the country, and in accordance with which country’s legalisation, in which they are taken.

This study engages in an ethical examination of contemporary socio-ecological and economic issues which takes seriously the plight of Africa, African communities, indigenous knowledge and biodiversity. It studies the impact of bioprospecting, biopiracy and intellectual property rights regimes on the protection, use, access to, and conservation of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge in Africa. The study also examines the ways in which northern multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies and their agents prospect and convert African resources (biological commons and indigenous knowledge) into their intellectual property as well as private property. It argues that the transfer of African biological commons and indigenous knowledge is exacerbated by economic globalisation and the neo-colonial mentality of conquest concealed under the guise of commerce. The study demonstrates through concrete case studies the tactics used by northern multinational corporations to claim these resources as their intellectual property rights and private property. It observes that the privatisation of biological commons and indigenous knowledge only brings about nominal or no benefits to African communities who have nurtured and continue to nurture them. It also observes that this privatisation results in fewer benefits for biodiversity as they lead to the promotion of monoculture, i.e. commercialisation of all things. To address the injustice and exploitative implications of bioprospecting, biopiracy and intellectual property rights, the study recommends the adoption and implementation of the African model law, the establishment of defensive intellectual property rights mechanisms, and the strategy of resistance and advocacy. It suggests that these measures ought to be grounded on the African normative principle of botho and the Christian ethical principle of justice. / Systematic Theology and Theological Ethics / D.Th.(Theological Ethics)

This work deals with consumer protection within travel agencies. A part of the work is a literary research of the current situation of the CK and CA market, an analysis of selected travel agencies, and a questionnaire survey, which aimed to determine how aware consumers are of their rights when purchasing a trip. Consumer protection is still a relevant topic that is necessary to pay attention to.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:24:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2006-11-08Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:12:16Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 ferreira_ns_me_fran.pdf: 944621 bytes, checksum: 91408d4cbdc2c71559c6cc703fa6c91f (MD5) / O presente estudo iniciou-se com análise de legislações domésticas que contribuíram para a formação do Primeiro Regime Internacional de Propriedade Intelectual, inaugurado com a Convenção de Paris de 1883. Tal fase objetivou extrair os verdadeiros paradigmas que sustentam os Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual, bem como apontar a importância da inovação tecnológica enquanto bem juridicamente valorado pela sociedade. Após tal análise, passou-se ao estudo do Primeiro Regime Internacional de Propriedade Intelectual, onde foram abordados todos os Tratados, Acordos e Convenções Internacionais que objetivaram proteger o potencial criativo e as inovações tecnológicas sob os auspícios da Organização Mundial da Propriedade Intelectual (OMPI). Em seguida, sob uma perspectiva histórica, foram analisados os fatores sociais, políticos e econômicos que contribuíram para o fim do Primeiro Regime e o início do Novo Regime Internacional de Propriedade Intelectual. Dentre os denominadores apontados, recebeu destaque o fenômeno de internacionalização do comércio, o qual passou a gerar efeitos a partir de meados dos anos 70 (setenta). Finda tal etapa, analisou-se o Novo Regime Internacional de Propriedade Intelectual, cujo marco inicial é o Anexo 1.C. do Acordo Constitutivo da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC) de 1994. Tal Anexo é conhecido pelo nome de TRIPS (Treaty Related Aspects of Intellectual Property). A mudança de Regime foi estudada sob a perspectiva da modificação dos princípios sob os quais se estruturou o Primeiro Regime Internacional de Propriedade Intelectual. Neste ponto, concluiuse que o principal marco de ruptura foi a inserção dos princípios de livre-concorrência dentre os princípios que disciplinavam a matéria desde a Convenção de Paris de 1883. Outro fator de ruptura foi a inclusão do tema “Propriedade Intelectual” nas matérias... / El presente estudio se inició con análisis de legislaciones domésticas que contribuyeron para la formación del “Primer Régimen Internacional de Propiedad Intelectual”, inaugurado con lo Convenio de Paris de 1883. Dicha fase tuvo como objetivo extraer los verdaderos paradigmas que sostienen los Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual, bien como apuntar la importancia de la innovación tecnológica como un bien juridicamente valorado por la sociedad. Después de este análisis, se pasó al estudio del Primer Régimen Internacional de Propiedad Intelectual, donde fueron abordados todos los Tratados, Arreglos y Convenciones Internacionales que tenían como objetivo proteger el potencial creativo y las innovaciones tecnológicas bajo los auspícios de la Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual (OMPI). En seguida, bajo una perspectiva histórica, fueron analizados los hechos sociales, políticos y económicos que contribuyeron para el fin del Primer Régimen y el início del Nuevo Régimen Internacional de Propiedad Intelectual. Entre los denominadores apuntados, recibió especial atención el fenómeno de internacionalización del comércio, el cual pasó a generar efectos a partir de mediados de los años 70 (setenta). Terminada tal etapa, se analisó el Nuevo Régimen Internacional de Propiedad Intelectual, cuyo marco inicial es el Anexo 1.C. del Acuerdo Constitutivo de la Organización Mundial del Comércio (OMC) de 1994. Tal Anexo es conocido por el nombre de ADPIC (Aspectos de los Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual relacionados con el Comercio). El cambio de Régimen fue estudiado bajo la perspectiva de la modificación de los princípios bajo los cuales se estructuró el Primer Régimen Internacional de Propiedade Intelectual. En este punto, se concluyó que el principal marco de ruptura fue la inserción de los princípios de libre competencia entre los princípios que disciplinaban la materia desde lo Convenio de Paris de 1883...

A transferência internacional de tecnologia é operação que serve como base para o desenvolvimento tecnológico. Muito além da dicotomia desenvolvimento autóctone versus importação de tecnologia, verificamos que a importação de tecnologia é, também, geradora de parte das condições precedentes para o desenvolvimento de inovação localmente. Componente-chave de qualquer processo de transferência de tecnologia é a efetiva transferência de habilidades e know-how intangível que assegurem a capacidade produtiva. O canal de transferência de tecnologia não é uma forma fácil de construir capacidade de inovação. Por meio deste, as conseqüências da transferência de tecnologia serão determinadas pelos objetivos gerais das corporações que contratam, os quais certamente não englobam a disseminação da tecnologia para potenciais concorrentes. Dentro do contexto de conflito tecnológico norte-sul ainda existente, a harmonização do direito da concorrência e da propriedade intelectual em torno do interesse coletivo concentra-se justamente na administração da intenção dos países detentores da tecnologia de manter o seu monopólio e acesso restrito à tecnologia e o dos países receptores de terem amplo acesso e utilização da tecnologia. A política de intensificação da transferência de tecnologia internacional depende não somente de políticas regionais e internacionais, mas também de políticas nacionais. É preciso analisar caminhos viáveis para as políticas dentro da moldura nacional e internacional existente. A industrialização brasileira orientou-se no sentido de gerar capacidade produtiva com adoção de padrões tecnológicos relativamente atrasados e imposição de elevadas barreiras à entrada, impactando significativamente a capacidade do país de gerar, transferir e introduzir inovações tecnológicas. A regulação da transferência de tecnologia que a acompanhou tinha como vetores principais a substituição de importações paralelamente a controles fiscais e cambiais dos pagamentos das contratações, como forma de promover o equilíbrio da balança de pagamentos do país. Esta permanece em vigor, com alterações mínimas. Ao Governo cabe delinear de forma mais clara em sua política industrial o tipo e maneira de controles que pretende exercer sobre a importação de tecnologia para o país, e com qual finalidade. Adicionalmente, é preciso promover uma harmonização dos vários diplomas legais incidentes na operação para que expressem coerência entre si. A coerência será atingida na medida em que se escolham os vetores definidores da regulação de forma consistente. A regulação deve concentrar-se na absorção da técnica pela mão-de-obra local, sem desestimular o fornecedor estrangeiro. Ambos objetivos serão atingidos com a (i) matização da regulação na área tributária e cambial e a (ii) promoção de maior interatividade entre a regulação pela propriedade industrial e o direito concorrencial, que devem focar nos termos das contratações. Quanto à política da concorrência, é preciso distinguir entre uma política de concorrência baseada somente em inovação e aquela baseada em disseminação da inovação. Quando se foca somente na inovação e se impede a disseminação, esquece-se de que o bônus que se concede hoje à inovação implicará um preço no futuro. Uma política de concorrência com a intenção de promover a disseminação e absorção de tecnologia não pode ser tarefa para as autoridades da área concorrencial, somente. / The international transfer of technology is an operation that serves as a basis for technological development. Well beyond the contrast indigenous development versus importation of technology, the importation of technology also generates preconditions for the development of local innovation. A key component of any transfer of technology process is the effective transfer of expertise and intangible know-how that ensure the production capacity. The transfer of technology vehicle is not a simple form of building innovation capacity. Through it, the consequences of the transfer of technology are determined by the overall purposes sought by the companies that convene this and certainly does not cover the dissemination of the technology to potential competitors. Within the context of the northsouth technological conflict that still exists, streamlining of antitrust law and of intellectual property law considering the public interest lays precisely on the management of the intention of the countries that own the technology to sustain their monopoly and restrict the access to the technology and the intention of the acquiring countries to have broad access and use of the technology. The policy of incrementing transfer of international technology depends not only on regional and international policies, but also on national policies, being necessary to analyze viable courses for the policies in the existing national and international framework. The Brazilian industrialization was guided in the direction of generation of production capacity adopting international standards that were relatively obsolete and by imposing obstacles to imports, substantially affecting the countrys capacity to generate, transfer and adopt new technologies. The technology transfer regulations that accompanied it had as its main pillars the replacement of imports and tax and currency exchange controls over the payments of the agreements to stabilize the countrys foreign trade deficit. This continues to exist, with minimal changes. It is incumbent on the Government to clearly outline in its industrial policy the type and form of the control that it intends to use in the importation of technology into Brazil and with what purpose. Further, it is necessary to harmonize the several statutes that apply to the operation so that they reflect coherency among each other. Coherence shall be attained upon selecting the vectors that define the regulation in a consistent manner. The regulation should concentrate on the absorption of the know-how by the local workers, but without discouraging the foreign supplier. Both goals would be met upon (i) softening the regulation under the tax and exchange aspects, and (ii) fostering greater interaction between the regulation in the intellectual property and antitrust laws areas, which should focus on the contractual clauses. As regards the antitrust policy, it is necessary to distinguish between an antitrust policy that is based solely on innovation and that which is based on the dissemination of the innovation. When only innovation is focused and dissemination is hindered, the bonus that is now being conferred to innovation and that will have a toll in the future is ignored. An antitrust policy that is intended to foster the dissemination and absorption of technology cannot be a task borne only by the antitrust authorities.

O nome de empresa é um dos mais antigos sinais distintivos do empresário, remontando sua origem ao início do tráfico de mercadorias. Todavia, a proteção ao nome de empresa é problema crônico no Brasil, sendo, desde o século XIX, objeto de intensos e insolúveis debates, especialmente quanto à sua natureza, função, extensão e âmbito territorial de proteção. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho é a estudar o nome de empresa à luz da hodierna legislação, doutrina e jurisprudência, analisando a problemática existente em relação à sua proteção. O trabalho é iniciado com noções propedêuticas sobre o nome, traçando a distinção entre o nome no plano pessoal e empresarial, para, então, tratar especificamente do nome de empresa, conceituando-o e definindo suas modalidades, função, natureza jurídica, regras de formação e disciplina jurídica no Brasil, desde o nascimento da proteção até o conflito com outros sinais distintivos do empresário. / The tradename is one of the most ancient distinctive sign of the entrepreneur, ascending to the beginning of commerce. Notwithstanding, the tradenames protection in Brazil is a chronic problem. Since the 19th century, the tradename was a center of insolvable discussion about its nature, function and protections extension. Therefore, this paper aims to analyze the most significant features of the tradename in Brazil, taking into consideration the current doctrine, legislation and jurisprudence. This study intends to point out the conception of the name, delineating the differences between civil and tradename, as well as the notion of tradename, its species, its two functions, legal nature, standards of formation and, at last, its substantial protection in Brazil.

Selon les théories classiques du pouvoir, les relations asymétriques favorisent généralement l’acteur le plus puissant en termes de ressources. Toutefois, la partie la plus puissante au niveau de la force et des ressources ne gagne pas toujours dans les négociations. Cela dépend de plusieurs facteurs et notamment des tactiques de négociation de la partie la plus faible. Notre thèse vise justement à analyser un certain nombre de stratégies de négociations que peuvent mener les parties les plus faibles pour obtenir des gains. Afin d’illustrer nos propos, nous avons choisi l’exemple donné par un certain nombre de pays en voie de développement (PVD) pour contester le brevet sur le vivant contenu dans l’Accord sur les aspects des droits de la propriété intellectuelle (ADPIC). Notre objectif a été de comprendre les principales stratégies qu’ils ont employées pour remettre en question cette norme et la rééquilibrer. Afin de réaliser ce travail, nous nous sommes servis du concept d’hégémonie de Gramsci et de cadre emprunté à la littérature des mouvements sociaux. Cela nous a permis de poser l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’Accord sur les ADPIC constitue une norme hégémonique qui avantage essentiellement quelques pays développés et des entreprises internationales. Cependant, cette domination se cache derrière un discours universel et positif visant à susciter une forte adhésion. Ainsi, dans un tel cas de figure, les PVD ne peuvent pas espérer la remettre en question sans un changement de perception. Il faut donc que les règles perçues comme justes et immuables soient cadrées comme injustes et mutables, pour que les pays décident de les contester. Nous avons alors testé cette hypothèse à travers une analyse de contenu du discours officiel des PVD à l’Organisation mondiale du commerce. Ce travail nous a permis d’observer que le cadrage est un instrument important pour lutter contre l’hégémonie d’une norme. En effet, il offre la faculté de montrer que le brevet sur le vivant, loin de présenter que des avantages, est aussi une source de problèmes auxquels il faut apporter des solutions. Le cadre constitue aussi un bon moyen pour élaborer des propositions normatives alternatives. Toutefois, nous avons constaté que cette stratégie est insuffisante pour traduire les propositions des PVD en normes contraignantes. Afin d’obtenir certains changements normatifs, l’élaboration de coalitions s’avère particulièrement pertinente pour les PVD. De même, nous avons noté que les PVD qui demandent des changements normatifs quand la structure des opportunités politiques est ouverte ont plus de chance d’obtenir satisfaction de leurs revendications. La présente thèse nous offre ainsi un portrait général de stratégies de négociation et démontre que sous certaines conditions les parties les plus faibles peuvent obtenir certains gains dans une négociation asymétrique. / According to the classical theories of power, asymmetrical relations generally favor the most powerful actor in terms of resources. However, the most powerful in terms of strength and resources part does not always win in negotiations. This depends on several factors, including negotiation tactics of the weaker party. Our thesis aims to analyze different type of negotiation strategies that weaker parties can use to obtain some benefit. To illustrate this point, we chose the example set by a number of developing countries (DV) to challenge the patenting of life contained in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Our goal was to understand the key strategies they have used to question this norm and rebalance it. To make this work, we used the concept of hegemony conceptualized by Gramsci and the concept of framework borrowed from the literature of social movements. This tool has allowed us to make the assumption that TRIPS is a hegemonic norm that mainly benefit to few developed countries and international companies. However, this domination is hidden by the norms thanks to universal and positive discourse which help to generate strong adhesion. Thus, in such a case, developing countries can’t expect to challenge this norm without a change of perception. It is therefore necessary that the rules perceived as fair and immutable are framed as unjust and mutable, so that countries decide to challenge it. We then tested this hypothesis through a content analysis of the DC’s official discourse at the World Trade Organization. This work has allowed us to observe that the framing is an important tool in the fight against the norm’s hegemony. Indeed, it offers the possibility to show that the patenting of life, far from presenting just a source of benefits, is also a source of problems that need solutions. The frame is also a good way to develop alternative normative propositions. However, we found that this strategy is insufficient to translate DC’s proposals into binding norms. In order to obtain changes in the agreement, building coalitions is particularly relevant for DC. Furthermore, we noted that DC which require regulatory changes when the structure of political opportunities is opened are more likely to obtain what they want. This thesis offers us a general picture of negotiations strategies and reveal that under certain conditions the weaker parties can get some gains in an asymmetrical negotiation.