Animals often act as source domain is metaphorical shifts. In European languages, there are often several lexicalised verbs for specific sounds with a prototypical animal as subject. These verbs of animal sounds and their metaphorical meanings have been studied cross-linguistically, which have made it possible to create a classification of situations that tend to be expressed by animal metaphors. There are many verbs of animal sounds in Swedish, but their metaphorical uses are not investigated. The present study investigates the metaphorical use of verbs of animal sounds in Swedish blog text and news text. The classification is used as a starting point for analysing occurrences of 13 Swedish verbs. The study seeks to answer which situations can be expressed by the Swedish verbs, which different situations can one and the same verb express metaphorically, and how did the typological classification suit the Swedish data? The results showed that the verbs often have human subjects, and different verbs varies in the range of metaphorical uses they possess. Three types of changes were made to the classification to suit the Swedish data: situations were moved, situations were added, and situations were removed. / Djur förekommer ofta som källdomän i metaforer. I europeiska språk finns det ofta många lexikaliserade verb för specifika typer av läten med ett prototypiskt djur som subjekt. Typologiska studier har gjorts på dessa verb för djurläten, och deras metaforiska användningar. Detta har lett till en klassifikationsmodell över mänskliga situationer som ofta uttrycks med metaforisk användning av verb för djurläten. I svenska finns det många sådana verb, men deras metaforiska användningar har inte undersökts. Syftet med den här studien var att undersöka den metaforiska användningen av verb för djurläten i svenska. 13 verb som beskriver ett specifikt läte hos ett visst djur valdes ut. Studiens data var definitioner av verben, hämtade från lexikon, och konkordansrader med verben, hämtade från korpusar av språk från bloggar och nyhetstext. Studien undersöker vilka situationer som kan uttryckas med metaforisk användning av dessa verb, vilka olika användningar ett och samma verb kan uttrycka, samt hur väl den föreslagna klassifikationsmodellen fungerar på svenska. Resultatet visar att verben främst har mänskliga subjekt och att verben varierar i hur många och vilka situationer de kan uttrycka metaforiskt. Ett par ändringar gjordes på klassifikationsmodellen, till exempel lades typen ’talverb’ till, och subtypen ’röstkvalitet’ frigjordes från typen ’fysiologiska ljud’.

I denna studie undersöks hur de svenska rörelseverben komma och gå används för att bilda perspektiv när de används i tredje person i två klassiska svenska romaner. Vidare undersöks vilka faktorer som påverkar perspektivbildningen och om perspektiven är konsistenta eller inkonsistenta. Paradigmatiska och lexikala relationer mellan komma och gå har undersökts med hjälp av substitutionstest. Komma och gå är polysema verb, men det är enbart den primära grundbetydelsen av verben som används vid perspektivbildning. Som visats i andra studier är empatisk identifikation vanlig vid perspektivbildning.Inkonsistenta perspektiv är sällsynta och substitution leder till ogrammatiska eller icke idiomatiska meningar i hälften av fallen. Detta talar för att det enbart är i vissa sammanhang som rörelseverben komma och gå fungerar som deiktiska motsatspar. / This study examines how the Swedish verbs of motion komma and gå (’come’ and ’go’) are used to form perspective when they are used in the third person in two classic Swedish novels. Furthermore, it examines which factors influence the formation of perspectives and whether the perspectives are consistent or inconsistent. Paradigmatic and lexical relations between komma and gå have been investigated using substitution tests. Komma and gå are polysemous verbs, but only the primary basic meaning of the verbs is used in perspective formation. As shown in other studies, empathic identification is common in perspective formation. Inconsistent perspectives are rare, and substitution leads to ungrammatical or non-idiomatic sentences in half of the cases. This suggests that it is only in certain contexts that the motion verbs komma and gå function as deictic pairs of opposites.

In the master thesis regularities of lexicographic representation of the Russian verbs of cooking in the sensible and ideographic dictionary are revealed: verbs of difficult action as a part of cooking verbs are considered, the logiko-semantic relations between situations in polypro-positive verbs of cooking in Russian are generalized. Features of semantics of verbs of cooking in Chinese which correspond to the Russian verbs are investigated to prepare, cook, cook, fry, to make, zasakharivat, extinguish, soar, and also the Chinese verbs corresponding to the Russian verbs of preparation something for the future. The analysis algorithm and descriptions of verbs of cooking in Chinese is defined. / В магистерской диссертации выявлены закономерности лексикографического представления русских глаголов приготовления пищи в толково-идеографическом словаре: рассмотрены глаголы сложного действия в составе глаголов приготовления пищи, обобщены логико-семантические отношения между ситуациями в полипропозитивных глаголах приготовления пищи в русском языке. Исследованы особенности семантики глаголов приготовления пищи в китайском языке, которые соотносятся с русскими глаголами готовить, стряпать, варить, жарить, заваривать, засахаривать, тушить, парить, а также китайских глаголов, соотносящихся с русскими глаголами приготовления чего-либо впрок. Определен алгоритм анализа и описания глаголов приготовления пищи в китайском языке.

國立政治大學英國語文學系在職碩士班 碩士論文提要 論文名稱：高中生英文作文中情態助動詞使用之分析 指導教授：尤雪瑛博士 研究生：張翠杏撰 論文提要內容： 本研究旨在分析高中生在英文作文中使用情態助動詞之情形，並就學生使用情態助動詞之困難加以研究，以期能了解學生困難之所在並加以解決。 本研究採用質與量的分析方法。質的分析包括： (一) 情態助動詞之意義與功能； (二) 學生誤用情態助動詞之情形； (三) 影響學生誤用情態助動詞之原因。量的分析則重在研究： (一) 學生使用各個情態助動詞之頻率； (二) 學生最容易誤用之情態助動詞之頻率。 本研究結果如下：學生最常使用的情態助動詞為can和will，這兩者也最容易被誤用，學生除了會把各個情態助動詞互相替換使用之外，也會在不需要情態助動詞的情形下使用情態助動詞。造成學生誤用情態助動詞原因包括： (一) 學生誤解不同情態助動詞的用法，而把一種用法運用在其他情態助動詞上； (二) 學生把情態助動詞的用法簡化； (三) 學生受到固定用語的影響； (四) 學生受到母語的影響直接把中文翻譯成英文。 本研究最後提出在英語教學上的建議：在課堂上教授情態助動詞時，除了將各個情態助動詞不同的用法呈現，還必須比較各個情態助動詞之間相近的用法，再把這些情態助動詞放在不同的情境中呈現它們在現實生活中真正的用法與意義，期使學生能學到情態助動詞正確的用法。 / ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to analyze the use of modal verbs in students’ compositions and to understand students’ difficulty in learning and using modal verbs. Modal verbs’ surface forms and grammatical characteristics are very easy for students to remember. However, their complicated meanings and usages are somewhat difficult. This study adopts qualitative and quantitative analyses. The qualitative analysis includes: (1) the meanings and functions of modal verbs, (2) students’ misuse of modal verbs, and (3) the reasons that affect students’ misuse of modal verbs. The quantitative analysis includes: (1) the frequency of the use of every modal verb in students’ compositions, and (2) the frequency of the misuse of modal verbs. The results of this study are summarized as follows: the most often used modal verbs are can and will. Students tend to use wrong modal verbs or add modal verbs to sentences that don’t need one. The reasons affecting students’ misuse of modal verbs are: (1) students’ misunderstanding of the use of modal verbs, (2) students’ oversimplification of the meanings and functions of modal verbs, (3) the effect of frozen idiomatic expressions, and (4) the effect of students’ native languages. Finally, the study provides pedagogical suggestions and implications in teaching modal verbs. First, subtle usages and meanings of modal verbs should be presented. Second, they should be taught in different contexts. Third, apply pragmatics to the teaching of modal verbs. The goal is to help students learn authentic usages of modal verbs.

<p>This essay is a corpus study, the aim of which is to investigate the usage of two near-synonymous verb pairs that descend from Germanic and Romance languages. The four verbs begin, commence, hate, and detest were chosen for the study. The analysis is based on occurrences of the verbs in five subcorpora in the COBUILDDIRECT corpus; two subcorpora consist of British and American books and three subcorpora are composed of British and Australian newspapers. Occurrences were also collected from the novel Wuthering Heights (1847) by Emily Brontë. The primary aims of the essay are to investigate the frequency and occurrence of the verbs in different text types as well as in British and American books, to reveal if the verbs are synonymous and whether they occur with the same collocates. Furthermore, the novel Wuthering Heights gives a diachronic view of the usage of the verbs.</p><p>This analysis suggests that a usage of the verbs of Germanic origin is more frequent than the verbs of Romance origin. The Romance verbs are more common in novels and books, but also in the British newspaper The Times. Furthermore, the usage of commence and detest seems to be restricted to certain contexts which are connected to the field of the English language in which the verbs occurred at first. The Germanic verbs are clearly favoured in all kinds of texts investigated, even though Wuthering Heights has a high number of occurrences of commence.</p><p>On the topic of synonymy, begin and commence have been found to be further apart from each other than hate and detest. This is due to the fact that begin and commence are constructed grammatically different, as well as a restriction in contextual usage of commence. Despite this, commence is used more freely in American books than in British books. The synonymy of hate and detest is connected to the fact that detest expresses a stronger feeling than hate, which makes the two verbs near-synonymous but also gradable. The verbs in the two pairs also collocate with different words, which underlines that they are not real synonyms. These findings support the claim that one should not call the verb pairs synonyms but near-synonyms, and that one has to be careful when choosing a verb.</p>

本論文試圖經由檢視過去對於漢語情態動詞的研究，找出最適合稱為「情態動詞」的十二個情態動詞，並以此為基礎建立適合漢語情態動詞的語意分類方式：主要分三大類—動力情態、義務情態、認知情態。同時也從共時與歷時的角度檢視漢語裡的五個多義情態動詞，包括會、能、要、可以、應該。研究發現這五個多義情態動詞所顯現的多義都是極度相關的。首先，五個多義情態動詞都有以上三大類的情態意義，其中又以動力情態為中心意義。此外，本研究確立多義情態動詞的發展方向與階段，由動力情態延伸出來的義務情態是透過主觀化的認知機制(Traugott 1980)，之後，由義務情態發展出來的認知情態則是由於主觀化與隱喻(Sweetser 1990)的運作。最後，本文也探討了情態與句法的互動關係。 / The purpose of this study is to reveal the relationship among polysemous modal verbs in Mandarin Chinese (hui4, neng2, yao4, ke3yi3, ying1gai1). It is found that the multiple modal senses encoded in the five polysemous modal verbs are closely-related. Through a careful examination on both synchronic and diachronic data of the five polysemous modal verbs, it is suggested that each of them exhibit three major modality types, including dynamic (ability, volition), deontic (directive, commissive), and epistemic (judgmental) modalities. At Stage I of the path of development, dynamic modality, as the core meaning of polysemous modal verbs, is extended to deontic modality through the cognitively-driven mechanism—subjectification, which is proposed by Traugott (1989). Then, epistemic modality is developed from deontic modality at Stage II through both subjectification and metaphorization (Sweetser 1990). After determining the direction and stages of the development path of the five polysemous modal verbs, a feature-based classification for modality types of Chinese modal verbs is provided in order to incorporate the differences and similarities among the three modality types (dynamic, deontic, and epistemic modalities). Finally, the interaction between modalities and other syntactic elements (predicates and arguments) is discussed with examples.

<p>Дати рад има задатак да представи, опише и одреди статус лексички крњих глагола у руском и српском језику. Реч је о глаголима који нису способни самостално да функционишу, због чега су упућени на самосталне речи, са којима у споју остварују своју улогу и постају способни да изразе граматичко значење самосталних речи, као и читаве конструкције чији су саставни део.<br />Глаголи овога типа биће класификовани у три основне групе: 1) копулативни глаголи; 2) модални и фазни глаголи и 3) формално пунозначни глаголи, њихова анализа спроводиће се како у оквиру наведених група, тако и у целини, а основу датог проучавања представљаће контрастивна анализа и одређивање статуса датих глагола у савременом руском и српском језику.<br />Иако су више пута били предмет истраживања, непунозначни глаголи нису добили једну целовиту анализу, нису адекватно груписани и побројани, није урађена типолошка класификација ове групе глагола у оба поређена језика. Насупрот детаљно истраженој групи пунозначних (самосталних) глагола, група лексички непунозначних глагола заслужује исцрпнију анализу, јаснију научну дефиницију, изучавање њихове семантике, карактера, као и специфичности односа које означавају, односно положаја који заузимају у општем систему језичких јединица.</p> / <p>Dati rad ima zadatak da predstavi, opiše i odredi status leksički krnjih glagola u ruskom i srpskom jeziku. Reč je o glagolima koji nisu sposobni samostalno da funkcionišu, zbog čega su upućeni na samostalne reči, sa kojima u spoju ostvaruju svoju ulogu i postaju sposobni da izraze gramatičko značenje samostalnih reči, kao i čitave konstrukcije čiji su sastavni deo.<br />Glagoli ovoga tipa biće klasifikovani u tri osnovne grupe: 1) kopulativni glagoli; 2) modalni i fazni glagoli i 3) formalno punoznačni glagoli, njihova analiza sprovodiće se kako u okviru navedenih grupa, tako i u celini, a osnovu datog proučavanja predstavljaće kontrastivna analiza i određivanje statusa datih glagola u savremenom ruskom i srpskom jeziku.<br />Iako su više puta bili predmet istraživanja, nepunoznačni glagoli nisu dobili jednu celovitu analizu, nisu adekvatno grupisani i pobrojani, nije urađena tipološka klasifikacija ove grupe glagola u oba poređena jezika. Nasuprot detaljno istraženoj grupi punoznačnih (samostalnih) glagola, grupa leksički nepunoznačnih glagola zaslužuje iscrpniju analizu, jasniju naučnu definiciju, izučavanje njihove semantike, karaktera, kao i specifičnosti odnosa koje označavaju, odnosno položaja koji zauzimaju u opštem sistemu jezičkih jedinica.</p> / <p>The aim of this dissertation is to analyze and determine the status of lexically incomplete verbs in Russian and Serbian. Lexically incomplete verbs are those that cannot function independently, which is why they are directed towards independent words. It is by means of this relationship they are able to perform their function and express grammatical meaning of independent words, as well as of the entire phrase they are a part of.<br />These verbs will be classified in three primary groups: 1) copulative verbs; 2) modal and phase verbs; 3) verbs with formally full meaning, their analysis will be performed both within the framework of the aforementioned groups and by treating them as a whole, whereas the basis for the study will be set by a contrastive analysis and the determination of the status of the verbs in modern Russian and Serbian.<br />Even though they have so far been an object of numerous studies, verbs without full meaning have yet not been given a thorough analysis, nor have they been adequately grouped, inventoried and typologically classified in either of the two contrasted languages. If compared to the group of independent verbs with full meaning that were examined in great detail, the group of verbs without full lexical meaning deserves a more comprehensive analysis, a clearer scientific definition, an analysis of their semantics, character, as well as the specific relations they signify and the position they occupy in the general system of linguistic units.</p>

The purpose of this study was to determine whether nonnative speakers of English have access to specifically-linguistic constraints governing past tense morphology. Forty non-native speakers of English rated the naturalness of 29 exocentric, or headless, verbs in a partial replication of Kim, Pinker, Prince, and Prasada (1991) which looked at the same phenomenon in native speakers. Nonnative speaker performance was similar to the 40 subject native speaker control group. A correlation also existed between length of residence and subject ratings. The results imply that non-native speakers have access to the rules governing past tense morphology although not as completely as native speakers.

The aim of this thesis is to compare ways of expressing aspectuality in Norwegian and German. In the first, theoretical part, the attention is given to problems with the terminology and to differences in expressing aspect in Slavic and Germanic languages. In the following chapters, there are described various formal means of expressing aspect in Norwegian and German. In the practical part, I tried to find out how selected Norwegian aspectual constructions are translated into German. This analysis is based on a representative sample of literary texts. Key words: aspect, perfective, durative, telic and atelic verbs

Notre travail se focalise sur deux phénomènes observés dans le cadre de l'apprentissage de l'anglais langue seconde (L2) chez des adultes francophones: d'une part, l'usage non conventionnel de verbes, et d'autre part, l'importance du taux de production des verbes génériques (vs spécifiques). Notre population est constituée d'un groupe d'étudiants universitaires francophones en situation d'apprentissage de l'anglais de niveau B1 (population cible), ainsi que d'un groupe de locuteurs d'anglais L1 (population de référence), placés en situation de dénomination orale de 42 vidéos d'actions de type cut et break. Nos résultats montrent des différences significatives entre la manière dont les deux groupes catégorisent ces types d'actions, avec un taux plus élevé de descriptions non conventionnelles et de verbes génériques chez les locuteurs de l’anglais L2. A l'appui de ces résultats, nous soulignons l'importance de l'usage des verbes non conventionnels et génériques, qui constitue des stratégies de communication permettant aux apprenants L2 de pallier leurs lacunes lexicales. / Our work focuses on two phenomena that appear in the language of English L2 learners: the use of unconventional verbs, and the production of generic, high-frequency verbs (rather than specific verbs). Our study involves a group of Francophone university students learning English as a second language, with a B1 level (experimental group), as well as a group of native English speakers (control group), both placed in a naming task using 42 videos that show cut- and break-type actions. Results show significant differences in the way that the two groups categorize these types of actions, with a higher frequency of unconventional and generic verbs used by the L2 learners. Based on these results, we highlight the importance of the use of these types of verbs as a communication strategy, allowing L2 learners to compensate for gaps in their lexicon.