La présente recherche a pour objectif d’expliquer et d’évaluer le processus d’émergence du droit au respect des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones, qui se manifeste devant deux juridictions et une quasi-juridiction : les cours européenne et interaméricaine des droits de l’homme et le Comité des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, dont les jurisprudences feront l’objet d’une comparaison. Un tel sujet soulève plusieurs questions, dont celles de savoir à quel stade de ce processus nous en sommes, quel est le niveau de juridicité de la norme, mais aussi, quelle est la signification de ce droit, quels en sont les apports et comment se produit sa mise en œuvre. En proposer une interprétation éclairée suppose d’évaluer la référence au concept de mode de vie faite par les requérants, les juges et les experts. Cette démarche implique d’avoir recours à l’interdisciplinarité, plus précisément à certaines études anthropologiques. Cela requiert également un examen du discours des juges, des experts et des requérants pour en observer les convergences et les décalages. Quant aux résultats de recherche, le rôle de plusieurs acteurs au processus d’émergence de la norme nouvelle – les requérants, les juges ou les experts et les États – est souligné. Cela confirme la théorie de la polycentricité en matière de construction de certaines règles de droit international. La juridicité du droit au respect des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones et sa force varient en fonction des systèmes, mais il possède toujours les caractéristiques propres à la norme juridique internationale. Cette dernière consacre un droit spécifique appartenant aux peuples autochtones et tribaux ou aux membres de peuples autochtones et minoritaires. Elle protège un rapport au territoire, soit un mode d’appréhension et d’exploitation, mais aussi de circulation et d’établissement sur celui-ci, ainsi que des activités. Les requérants roms, tribaux ou autochtones participent, bien qu’officieusement, à la définition juridique de leurs modes de vie, puisque les requêtes qu’ils déposent devant les juridictions supranationales constituent le fondement des interprétations judiciaires. Malgré ce processus de codétermination, certains décalages persistent entre les positions des divers acteurs impliqués dans la détermination du sens de la norme. Ils sont liés à l’impossibilité pour les juges d’appliquer au cas d’espèce une protection de leurs modes de vie, à l’éloignement entre la position des requérants et celle de l’État défendeur ou encore à la protection des droits des tiers. Une double surdétermination de la norme est donc constatée, par les conceptions des juges ou des experts, mais aussi par celles des requérants. Elle comporte certains risques d’essentialisation et d’idéalisation des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones, de paternalisme, de victimisation ou de discrimination vis-à-vis des requérants ou de leurs communautés, sachant que ces risques sont tous à même de dénaturer le sens et la portée de la norme. Pour autant, cette dernière est porteuse d’avancées théoriques. Celles-ci ont trait à la coexistence, au sein de territoires identiques, entre groupes aux identités différentes, à l’amélioration de la qualité de vie des requérants et au processus de reconnaissance. La place occupée par la volonté des États, l’importance pour les juges de préserver leur légitimité, de même que le caractère idéaliste ou dogmatique de l’interprétation proposée, en limitent les apports théoriques. Il ressort de cette réflexion que la bonne articulation des divers discours en présence et l’émergence d’une norme efficace tiennent d’abord à l’énonciation et à la clarté des revendications des requérants minoritaires et autochtones. Elles tiennent ensuite à la réceptivité des agents qui les reçoivent – juges et experts – ainsi qu’au contexte politique, social et culturel qui les entourent. Cette analyse met ainsi en évidence l’importance d’exploiter la marge de manœuvre dont dispose chaque acteur du processus d’émergence dans la détermination du sens et de la portée des normes. / This research aims to explain and evaluate the emergence of a right of minorities and indigenous peoples to the respect of their ways of life, appearing before the European court of human rights, the Inter-American court of human rights and the United Nations Human rights Committee. The decisions and communications stemming from these tribunals will be analyzed and compared. This topic raises several questions regarding the legality of this norm, its meaning, effectiveness and limits, but also its implementation. In order to offer an interpretation of the content of that right, we need to evaluate the references made to it by the claimants, the judges and experts, which implicates an interdisciplinary approach focused on anthropological studies of law. This leads us to examine the discourses of judges, experts and claimants, to compare them and to observe their confluences and discrepancies. The results of this study show us that the emergence of this new norm is dependent upon the intervention of several agents – the claimants, the judges, the experts of the Committee and the States. This observation therefore confirms the polycentric process of construction of international legal rules. As to the legality and the effectiveness of the right of minorities and indigenous peoples to their ways of life, they vary according to the legal system, even if this right always corresponds to a legal rule. This rule consecrates a specific right belonging to indigenous and tribal people or to the members of indigenous people and minorities. It protects a relationship to the territory, i.e. a way to comprehend and to exploit it, to circulate on it and to inhabitate it. It also protects some activities. The indigenous, tribal and romas applicants unofficially take part in the legal definition of their ways of life, as the requests they submit to the international tribunals are cornerstones of judicial interpretations. In spite of a process of co-determination of the norm, gaps are observed between the positions of the different actors participating to the determination of the norm. They are either related to the impossibility for some judges to apply the right to a way of life to the case, to the distance between the positions of the claimants and the states, or to the protection of third parties. Consequently, a process of double distortion of the content of the norm appears, due to the judges’ or experts’ conceptions, but also to those of the claimants. It leads to the emergence of several problems, such as essentialism and the idealization of minorities and indigenous ways of life, paternalism, victimization or discrimination towards the claimants or their communities. These problems can alter the meaning and the impact of the norm. Nonetheless, the right to the respect of those ways of life has some theoretical effects related first to the coexistence, on a same piece of land, of different groups possessing diverse identities. They are also related to the improvement of the applicants’ quality of life and to the recognition process. However, the State’s willingness still occupies a large space in international law, as does the importance, for judges, to protect their own legitimacy. Moreover, some decisions seem too ideal or dogmatic. Those factors limit the effect of the norm. Thus, the articulation of judicial discourses and the efficiency of the norm are first contingent to the enunciation and to the clarity of the claimants’ requests. They are dependant of the receptivity of the agents whose role it is to receive them (judges and experts) and to the political, social and cultural context within which they take place. This last factor brings to light the importance for each agent participating to the elaboration of the norm to use, as much as he can, the margins he possesses. / Thèse de doctorat réalisée en cotutelle avec la Faculté de droit de l'Université Aix-Marseille 3.

The overall purpose of this dissertation is to provide an empirical study of the post-Cold War EastAsian security setting, with the aim of understanding why there is an East Asian peace. The EastAsian peace exists in a region with a history of militarised conflicts, home to many of the world'slongest ongoing militarised problems and a number of unresolved critical flashpoints. Thus, thepost-Cold War East Asian inter-state peace is a paradox. Despite being a region predicted to be ripefor conflict, there have not only been less wars than expected, but the region also shows severalsigns of a development towards a more durable peace. The dominant research paradigm –neorealism – has painted a gloomy picture of post-Cold War East Asia, with perpetual conflictsdominating the predictions. Other mainstream international relations theories, too, fail to accountfully for the relative peace. One of the greatest problems for mainstream theories, is accounting forpeace given East Asia's lack of security organisations or other formalised conflict managementmechanisms. Given this paradox/problem, this dissertation sets out to ask "Why is there a relativepeace in the East Asian security setting despite an absence of security organisations or otherformalised mechanisms to prevent existing conflicts from escalating into violence?" In order to answer this question, the case of East Asian peace is approached by comparingthree embedded case studies within the region: the Taiwan issue, the South China Sea, and theKorean nuclear conflict. It explores the full range of informal and formal processes plus the ConflictPrevention and Peacebuilding Mechanisms (CPPBMs) that have been important for the creation ofa continuing relative peace in East Asia between 1990 and 2008. The study furthermore focuses onChina's role in the three cases, on an empirical basis consisting of interviews conducted with keypersons during more than 1.5 years fieldwork in China. The three cases show that informal processes exist, and that they have furthermore beenimportant for peace, both by preventing conflicts from escalating into war, and by buildingconditions for a stable longer-term peace. Their impact on the persistence of peace has been tracedto a range of different CPPBMs. Returning to the level of the East Asian case, a common feature ofmany of the identified processes is that they can be understood as aspects or manifestations of theEast Asian regionalisation process. Specifically, elite interactions (personal networks, track twodiplomacy), back-channel negotiations, economic interdependence and integration, and functionalcooperation have together with (China's acceptance of) multilateralism and institutionalisation (ofpeaceful relations) been of high importance for the relative peace. Whereas formalised conflictmanagement mechanisms and the U.S. presence have also contributed to peace, this dissertationshows their contribution to be much more limited.

近年來，全球氣候變遷與環境惡化顯示目前人類活動與永續發展的衝突，如何減少能源消耗以降低溫室氣體排放成為當務之急。在都市規劃方面，以緊密都市理念探討都市發展與交通能源消耗最受到關注，然而都市發展與產業活動、家戶行為密切相關，因此若僅從交通方面分析能源消耗，恐忽略其他影響能源消耗的重要因素。故本研究著重於探討都市發展特性與能源消耗的關聯性，將產業活動與家戶行為納入模型分析，可更全面性了解都市與能源消耗的關聯性。此外，基於「全球思考、地方行動」的考量，如何落實節能減碳的目標，必須就各縣市的都市發展特性著手，透過追蹤資料模型，進一步了解各縣市的固定效果對能源消耗之影響以及能源消耗之時間趨勢。 透過對都市耗能部門進行分類，並以台灣改制後19個縣市為實證範圍，可以確認都市發展特性的幾個面向：土地使用密度、土地混合使用、交通屬性、產業屬性、家戶屬性、環境屬性與交通運輸、產業發展、家戶活動的耗能關係。實證結果發現，緊密都市有助於節能目標達成；道路增加可及性，但亦助長汽車使用，增加交通耗能；為提升大眾運輸使用率，需加強轉乘便利性以及改變私人交通運輸偏好；產業耗能與出口貿易關聯性高，不利能源減量；家戶居住行為與生活型態對能源消耗有正向影響；公園綠地能調節都市氣溫，減少耗能。 綜上所述，欲形塑一個節能減碳的都市必須透過多元途徑，在土地使用方面須維持適當的發展密度與混合程度；交通方面須加強大眾運輸便利性以提高民眾使用意願並抑制汽車使用；產業方面須透過政府獎勵節能措施及促進產業轉型以提升能源效率；家戶方面應透過教育及政策宣導以培養節能生活習慣，方能達成節能減碳的目標。 / In recent years, global climate change and environmental deterioration show a conflict between human activities and sustainable development. How to reduce energy consumption in order to mitigate greenhouse gas emission has become a top priority. According to the concept of compact city, urban planning is seen as the effective way to reduce transportation energy consumption. However, urban development is associated with industry development and household activities, so it would be improper to focus only on transportation sector. Thus the main motivation for this study is trying to illustrate urban development characteristics by combing transportation sector, industry sector and household sector, in order to understand the influence the urban development characteristics on energy consumption more comprehensively. In addition, on the concept of “global thinking, local action”, how to successfully implement energy saving policies should first understand the urban development characteristics of all counties. The purpose of this study is to empirically explore the influences of urban development characteristics on energy consumption by using panel data models, which uses the reorganization of nineteen counties areas in Taiwan as samples.In order to find out the fixed effect of all counties on energy consumption and trend of energy consumption. The empirical results show that the concepts of compact city still contributes the energy-saving goal；construction of roads increase accessibility, but also encourage car use, which increase energy consumption；to encourage the use of public transportation need to improve the convenience of transfer and change the preference of people；energy consumption in industry is highly associated to international trade, so it would be difficult for energy reduction；the trend of energy consumption has increased due to household lifestyle change；the green resources provides by park, which can adjust the temperature of city and reduce energy consumption. In sum, achieving the energy-saving city need diversified approaches, it can’t just keep increasing the density or land mixed-use. Traffic should be strengthened by improving transfer system. In order to increase the willingness to use public transport system and decrease car dependency；industry must trying to improve energy efficiency；households should cultivate the habit of saving energy by education in order to be a true energy-saving city.

This study examines the link between the individual and social network, what social forces and social mechanisms involved in the interaction between individuals and groups and how we can explain and consider this relationship with the aim of understanding this connection. Through qualitative interviews, based on interviews of six active members in the organization Young KRIS (Young Criminal’s Return in the Society) examines the active social processes that the young members undergo, and motivates those who have been outside the expected conformed and regular society, to be included in the regular community and how this can be explained. The study shows that the organization through high availability, openness, knowledge of the needs of young people, good treatment, range of meaningful activities, has created a great venue for the young to develop and thus regain their place in the society. / Denna studie undersöker kopplingen mellan individ och sociala nätverk, det vill säga vilka sociala krafter och sociala mekanismer är verksamma i mötet mellan individen och gruppen, och hur man kan förklara och se på denna relation med målet att förstå denna koppling. Genom den kvalitativa metoden, baserad på intervjuer av sex medlemmar inom organisationen Unga KRIS, undersöker vi de verksamma sociala processer unga medlemmar genomgår och som motiverar dem som har befunnit sig utanför det förväntade, konforma och reguljära samhället, att komma att inkluderas i det reguljära samhället och hur detta kan förklaras. Studien visar att organisationen genom hög tillgänglighet, öppenhet, kunskap om ungdomarnas behov, gott bemötande och utbud av meningsfulla aktiviteter, har skapat en trygg arena för att unga medlemmarna ska kunna utvecklas och därmed återfinna sin plats i samhället.

The cyclopentadienone-fused dihydropyrenes 46 and 47 were synthesized. The internal methyl resonances, the coupling constants, NICS calculations and X-ray results confirmed that the cyclopentadienone displays antiaromatic character resulting in bond localization in the annulene ring consistent with a 4n-pi fused system. The ring current of the dihydropyrene fragment is reduced by fusion of the antiaromatic system by about 80% of that caused by benzene. The syntheses of the methylfulvene fused dihydropyrene 56 and the phenylfulvene fused dihydropyrene 58 have been accomplished. The calculated and experimental NMR data and NICS calculations all demonstrated that the fulvenes had weak diatropic ring currents and caused bond localizations in the DHP rings, in which phenyl fulvene has a larger effect than that of methyl fulvene. A number of bis-dihydropyrene systems, bis-dihydropyrene ketone 117, bis-benzo[e]dihydropyrene ketone 119, benzo[e]dihydropyrene dihydropyrene ketone 122, bis-benzo[e]dihydropyrene methylene 124 and the benzo[e]dihydropyrene- dihydropyrene acetylene 130, have been synthesized, in which 117, 119 and 124 are homo-systems and 122 and 130 are hetero-systems. The multiple photoswitching properties study found that all of these systems except 130 showed multi-states during the photo opening and photo closing processes, which means that each end of the DHP units photo opens or closes separately rather than synchronously. In the homo switches 117, 119 and 124, the two DHP units act independently, but the relative differentiation is not very significant. On the other hand, the hetero-switch 122 showed fully differentiated photo opening process and almost a pure open-closed intermediate 122’ could be achieved. This is the first example which clearly showed four states in the UV closing process. The relative photo opening and closing rates compared to benzoDHP 36 have also been studied. It was found that while the carbonyl linker largely increased the relative photo opening rate (117, 119 and 122), the methylene linker only increased it slightly (124). The photo closing processes were always fast as usual. The studies of the thermal return reactions of these systems showed that while the carbonyl linker substantially slowed down the thermal return reactions of the DHP units (117, 119 and 122), the methylene linker speeded it up slightly (124). The mono-iron tricarbonyl benzo[e]dihydropyrene complex 152, the bis-iron tricarbonyl benzo[e]dihydropyrene complex 153 and the iron tetracarbonyl dihydropyrene complex 151 were synthesized. The structures of 152 and 153 were determined by X-ray crystallography. The coordinations of iron tricarbonyl moieties to the DHP rings caused a distortion of ca. 30 degree away from the central DHP plane. Coordination also increased bond alternation and reduced ring currents in the DHP rings. 1H-NMR and X-ray studies showed that 152 showed a weak paratropic ring current in the DHP ring. Iron coordination of the DHP completely stopped the photochromic properties of the dihydropyrenes.

High resolution spectra have been analyzed for two and three stars respectively in the candidate extragalactic globular clusters, NGC 5024 and NGC 5466, with the High-Resolution Spectrograph on the 9.2 m Hobby-Eberly Telescope. The goal of this investigation is to evaluate the proposed extragalactic origins of these two globular clusters. Evidence of a tidal tail in NGC 5466 (Belokurov et al., 2006) and the association of NGC 5024 with the Sagittarius stream (Martinez-Delgado et al., 2004) targeted the clusters as likely remnants of recent accretion events and thus potentially of extragalactic origin. Determination of their chemical abundance patterns could provide unique evidence to either support or dispute these claims. NGC 5024 has been associated with a proposed wrap in the Sagittarius stream which could be supported if the chemistry of NGC 5024 is similar to other clusters associated with the stream. NGC 5466 has the longest tidal tail known, which hints at an origin in a now dispersed dwarf spheroidal galaxy. Additional evidence for these clusters' capture origins has been compiled by Yoon & Lee (2002), demonstrating that these two low metallicity clusters, along with five others, are aligned in a single highly inclined plane in the outer halo. Confirmation that these clusters are remnants of dwarf galaxies would support a Galactic history which includes recent accretion events. Such evidence may bolster the cold dark matter hierarchical clustering scenario, which postulates the presence of a significant amount of substructure in the Milky Way. Unfortunately, at the metallicity of the target clusters ([Fe/H] = -1.9), the chemical distinction between Galactic stars and known dSph stars is not significant. The low [alpha/Fe] of dSph stars seen at higher metallicity is not apparent at [Fe/H] = -1.9 in either Galactic or dSph stars. Aside from a few mild discrepancies, NGC 5024 and NGC 5466 appear chemically similar to the Galactic field stars and globular clusters compiled by Pritzl et al. (2005). A moderate enhancement in the [Ba/Y] ratios relative to the halo field stars is the only positively detected chemical signature that is typically observed in dSph stars. Comparisons with Galactic GCs of similar age, metallicity and horizontal branch morphology (NGC 2298, NGC 6397 and NGC 5897) reveal a few other differences, but these could be attributed to systematic effects in the different analysis techniques. Although NGC 5024 has a similar metallicity to the GC Arp 2 that was stripped from the merging Sagittarius dwarf, neither Arp 2 (Mottini et al., 2008) nor the clusters in this study show any particularly unusual chemical abundance patterns. Thus, no conclusive evidence in support of or in opposition to the target clusters' proposed extragalactic origins has been discovered.

Cooperative relaying is a promising diversity achieving technique to provide reliable transmission, high throughput and extensive coverage for wireless networks in a variety of applications. Two-way relaying is a spectrally efficient protocol, providing one solution to overcome the half-duplex loss in one-way relay channels. Moreover, incorporating the multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) technology can further improve the spectral efficiency and diversity gain. A lot of related work has been performed on the two-way relay network (TWRN), but most of them assume perfect channel state information (CSI). In a realistic scenario, however, the channel is estimated and the estimation error exists. So in this thesis, we explicitly take into account the CSI error, and investigate its impact on the performance of amplify-and-forward (AF) TWRN where either multiple distributed single-antenna relays or a single multiple-antenna relay station is exploited. For the distributed relay network, we consider imperfect self-interference cancellation at both sources that exchange information with the help of multiple relays, and maximal ratio combining (MRC) is then applied to improve the decision statistics under imperfect signal detection. The system performance degradation in terms of outage probability and average bit-error rate (BER) are analyzed, as well as their asymptotic trend. To further improve the spectral efficiency while maintain the spatial diversity, we utilize the maximum minimum (Max-Min) relay selection (RS), and examine the impact of imperfect CSI on this single RS scheme. To mitigate the negative effect of imperfect CSI, we resort to adaptive power allocation (PA) by minimizing either the outage probability or the average BER, which can be cast as a Geometric Programming (GP) problem. Numerical results verify the correctness of our analysis and show that the adaptive PA scheme outperforms the equal PA scheme under the aggregated effect of imperfect CSI. When employing a single MIMO relay, the problem of robust MIMO relay design has been dealt with by considering the fact that only imperfect CSI is available. We design the MIMO relay based upon the CSI estimates, where the estimation errors are included to attain the robust design under the worst-case philosophy. The optimization problem corresponding to the robust MIMO relay design is shown to be nonconvex. This motivates the pursuit of semidefinite relaxation (SDR) coupled with the randomization technique to obtain computationally efficient high-quality approximate solutions. Numerical simulations compare the proposed MIMO relay with the existing nonrobust method, and therefore validate its robustness against the channel uncertainty. / Graduate

A novel fuzzy system named as 2-way fuzzy system is developed by combining the intuitionistic fuzzy set theory with the fuzzy systems theory. The developed system is used in modelling and minimizing uncertainty and inconsistency. Uncertainty is the width of the interval introduced by the independent assignment of membership and nonmembership functions of the intuitionistic fuzzy sets / and inconsistency is the violation of the consistency inequality in this assignment. The uncertainty and inconsistency is reduced through a 2 phase training. An evaluation of the degree of reduction of inconsistency is carried out at the end of the rst phase of training by forming the shadowed set patterns of the membership and nonmembership functions. The system is further trained for a second phase in order to reduce uncertainty. There are three dierent methods developed for the stability analysis of fuzzy systems. The rst method is based on the approximating sequences technique, and the design turns into an optimal control problem. In the sec ond analysis, describing function of a 2-way fuzzy system is evaluated analytically, and a systematic design approach is developed using describing function technique. The last analysis technique employs the Lie algebra theory in the stability analysis of Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy systems. The theoretical results are simulated on an application system, which is a exible-joint robot arm system.

Five year old children starting their formal education in primary schools bring with them a range of informal mathematical understandings. Transitioning from an early childhood setting to the reception class at school can have a profound impact on their developing mathematical concepts. Traditionally their first teachers (parents, caregivers and whanau) gradually remove the support and encouragement and some of the familiar surroundings of their early childhood centres are no longer there. As children from 5 – 13 years of age spend approximately 85% of their time out of school it is important that their first teachers are encouraged to continue that support. This paper outlines a New Zealand project ‘Home School Partnership: Numeracy’ that gives one approach to enhancing children’s mathematical learning through shared understandings between home and school.

There is a worldwide development, better to say a non-development: We teach paper & pencil skills in primary schools almost like we did 30 or 50 or 100 years ago. Till today the primary school teachers spend up to more than 100 hours in the class room to teach and to train old fashioned algorithms though in daily life situations and for business purposes everybody uses a calculator. Why do we waste so much time of our children to teach them things which later on they will not need? We see an emotional dichotomy. Despite the research results from many research projects in many countries there still is the fear that the use of calculators in primary grades will harm mental arithmetic and estimation skills. To explain and to overcome that fear we will reflect the nature of number sense and of paper&pencil skills more carefully. We realize that the development of number sense is an intuitive and unconscious mental process while the ability to get an exact calculation result is trained logically and consciously. To overcome the above dichotomy we must solve the hidden dichotomy number sense versus precise calculation result. We need a new balance. Different types of examples will be given how we can further the development of number sense in a technology dominated curriculum.