No âmbito do ensino-aprendizagem de línguas adicionais, pesquisas acerca do desenvolvimento da oralidade têm demonstrado que se trata de um fenômeno multidimensional. Nakatani (2010) mostrou que o domínio de estratégias comunicacionais são indicadores de desempenho linguístico e se relacionam com a proficiência do aprendiz; Kang, Rubin e Pickering (2010) observaram que os traços fonológicos afetam a percepção sobre inteligibilidade e proficiência; Hewitt e Stephenson (2011), e Ahmadian (2012) indicaram que as condições psicológicas individuais interferem na qualidade da produção oral. Escribano (2004) sugeriu que a referência contextual é essencial na construção de sentido; Gao (2011) apontou os benefícios do ensino baseado na construção do sentido, a partir de metáforas conceptuais (LAKOFF e JOHNSON, 1980), codificação dupla (CLARK e PAIVIO, 1991) e esquemas imagéticos (LAKOFF, 1987); e Ellis e Ferreira-Junior (2009) demonstraram que as construções exibem efeitos de recência e priming, afetando o uso da linguagem dos parceiros interacionais. Tais estudos apontam para a natureza complexa da aquisição de L2, mas o fazem dentro do paradigma experimental da psicolinguística. Já Larsen-Freeman (2006), demonstra que a fluência, a precisão e a complexidade desenvolvem-se com o tempo, com alto grau de variabilidade, dentro do paradigma da Teoria da Complexidade. Em viés semelhante, Paiva (2011) observa que os sistemas de Aquisição de Segunda Língua (ASL) são auto-organizáveis. Esses trabalhos, no entanto, não abordaram aprendizes de L2 com proficiência inicial, como pretendo fazer aqui. Tendo como referenciais teóricos a Teoria da Complexidade e a Linguística Cognitiva, o presente trabalho apresenta um estudo de caso, qualitativo-interpretativista, com nuances quantitativos, que discute os processos de adaptação que emergiram na expressão oral de um grupo de aprendizes iniciantes de inglês como língua adicional no contexto vocacional. Parte do entendimento de que na sala de aula vários (sub)sistemas complexos coocorrem, covariando e coadaptando-se em diferentes níveis. A investigação contou com dados transcritos de três avaliações coletados ao longo de 28 horas de aula, no domínio ENTREVISTA DE EMPREGO. Após observar a produção oral das aprendizes, criei uma taxonomia para categorizar as adaptações que ocorreram na sintaxe, semântica, fonologia e pragmática da língua-alvo. Posteriormente organizei as categorias em níveis de prototipicidade (ROSCH et al, 1976) de acordo com as adaptações mais frequentes. Finalmente, avaliei a inteligibilidade de cada elocução, classificando-as em três níveis. A partir desses dados, descrevi como a prática oral dessas participantes emergiu e se desenvolveu ao longo das 28 horas. Os achados comprovam uma das premissas da Linguística Cognitiva ao mostrarem que os níveis de descrição linguística funcionam conjuntamente em prol do sucesso comunicacional. Além disso, demonstram que a função do professor, como discutem LARSEN-FREEMAN e CAMERON (2008), não é gerar uniformidade, mas sim oportunizar vivências que estabeleçam continuidade entre o mundo, o corpo e a mente / In the field of second and foreign language learning, research on oral communication development has been demonstrating that it is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Nakatani (2010) showed that the ability to use communicative strategies is related to linguistic performance and learners proficiency level; Kang, Rubin and Pickering (2010) affirmed that learners phonology affects perception over proficiency and intelligiblity; Hewitt and Stephenson (2011), as well as Ahmadian (2012), contended that individual psychological conditions interfere in the quality of production. Escribano (2004) suggested that contextual knowledge is essential to conceptualization; Gao (2011) pointed out the benefits of an approach based on conceptual metaphors (LAKOFF and JOHNSON, 1980), dual coding (CLARK and PAIVIO, 1991), and image schemas (LAKOFF, 1987); Ellis and Ferreira-Junior (2009) demonstrated that constructions exhibit priming and recency effects, which influence participants language use. These studies together instantiate the complex nature of L2 acquisition on the experimental psychology paradigm. In the scope of Complexity Theory, Larsen-Freeman (2006) demontrated that fluency, accuracy, and complexity increase over time, despite exhibiting high individual variability. By the same token, Paiva (2011) observed that SLA systems are self-organisable. Nevertheless, none of the above-mentioned studies addressed beginners, as we intend to do herein. By overlapping Complexity Theory and Cognitive Linguistics, we present a case study, with sprinkles of quantification, in order to specifically discuss the adaptation processes that emerged from the oral practice of a group of six English beginner female learners (n=6) in the vocational context. We understand that several complex (sub-) systems co-occur in the classroom, covarying and coadapting in different levels. The investigation counted on transcribed data (ATKINSON and HERITAGE, 1984) from three oral evaluations collected over 28 class hours, in the JOB INTERVIEW domain. After observing the learnersoral production, we created a taxonomy to categorise the adaptations that emerged in target language syntax, meaning, fonology and pragmatics. Later, we displayed the categories in prototype levels (ROSCH et al, 1976) in terms of frequency. Finally, we classified the inteligibility of each learners utterance in three levels. By means of these data, we were able to describe how participants oral expression emerged and evolved over 28 hours. The results reaffirm one of Cognitive Linguistics premises when showing that language description levels work jointly in favor of communicative success; and demonstrate that the teacher, rather than generate uniformity, ought to give rise to learning opportunities that provides a continuum between the world, the body and the mind, as discussed by Larsen-Freeman e Cameron (2008)

Ao longo das últimas décadas, foi crescente e notório o aumento de escolas de educação infantil em nosso país. Expandiu-se, em igual proporção, o número de turmas da educação infantil em escolas regulares, já que a própria LDB considera esse âmbito de ensino como parte integrante da educação básica. A fim de agregar um diferencial em sua grade curricular, aulas de língua inglesa como língua adicional são inseridas no currículo de um sem número de instituições nas mais variadas modalidades: aulas de 30 minutos ou 1 hora uma vez por semana, às vezes duas vezes por semana e, até mesmo, em propostas bilíngues, com aulas todos os dias da semana, em cargas horárias das mais diversas. Assim, este estudo propõe-se a uma análise crítica do ensino de língua inglesa como língua adicional para crianças de educação infantil. Foram selecionados como foco de pesquisa o uso da linguagem, a promoção do letramento na língua alvo e as crenças de professores, pais de alunos e coordenadores das instituições de ensino. Para a geração dos dados, duas escolas exclusivamente de educação infantil, duas escolas de educação básica e três escolas de idiomas foram visitadas. Procederam-se observações de aulas, entrevistas com os professores de língua inglesa, com pais de alunos e com as coordenadoras das escolas. Verificou-se que, independentemente da carga-horária oferecida pela escola, usar mais ou menos inglês em sala de aula era uma opção do professor, em acordo com as coordenações das escolas. Observou-se, também, que quanto mais comunicativa a abordagem de ensino, mais havia espaço para a promoção do letramento. E constatou-se que as crenças de pais, professoras e coordenadoras de escolas são pertinentes mas precisam ser ouvidas no contexto escolar de forma a produzir um ensino efetivo e prazeroso para os alunos. / Throughout the last decades, it was noticeably increasing the number of kindergarten schools in our country. It has expanded, in the same proportion, the number of kindergarten classes in regular schools, since LDB (Lei de Diretrizes e Bases) considers this scope of teaching as part of the primary education. In order to add some particularities in its curricula, classes of English as a foreign language has been inserted in hundreds of institutions, in many different approaches: thirty-minute or one hour classes once a week, sometimes twice a week and also in bilingual projects, with everyday classes, in several workloads. So, the aim of this search is to hold a critical analysis on the teaching of English as a foreign language to very young learners. The use of language, the promotion of literacy in the target language and the beliefs of teacher, students’ parents and schools coordinators were selected as the focus of this work. In order to generate the data, two kindergarten schools, two primary schools and three language schools were visited. Classes were observed and interviews with the teachers of English, with the students’ parents and with the schools coordinators were conducted. It was verified that, independently of the workload offered by the school, using less or more English in the classroom was an option made by the teacher, in accordance to the school’s coordination. It was also observed that the most communicative the approach was, the more space to literacy was given. And it was checked that parents’, teachers’, and coordinators’ beliefs are pertinent but need to be heard in the context of the school in order to offer an effective and pleasant learning environment for the pupils.

ICT (Information and communication technology) is a fundamental part of modern society and has been part of the educational systems across the world for a few decades. This essay focuses specifically on the relationship between ICT and the teaching and learning of English as a foreign language. ICT has been found to be pedagogically beneficial, but the transition towards and the handling of ICT is often challenging for schools and teachers. The aim of this study is to present and analyze Junior High School English teachers’ opinions regarding the use of ICT in their profession. The study identifies and discusses some of the advantages and disadvantages of ICT in education generally and in relation to the English subject specifically. The results are analyzed through a sociocultural perspective and the empirical foundation of this study is based on qualitative interviews with six English teachers. The results reveal that the interviewed teachers are optimistic towards the new technologies in their profession and that there is a will to further improve and learn more about the pedagogical benefits of ICT. Although there are obstacles hindering successful ICT integration in school, the possibilities and advantages that come with the new technologies make them indispensable. However, the results also reveal that there is still room for traditional materials in school and teachers seem to view ICT as a complement and do not wish to rely solely on modern technologies. / IKT (Informations- och kommunikationsteknologi) är en grundläggande del av det moderna samhället och har varit en del av världens skolsystem sedan årtionden tillbaka. Denna uppsats är specifikt fokuserad på förhållandet mellan IKT och engelskundervisning i den svenska högstadieskolan. IKT har visat sig vara pedagogiskt fördelaktigt i flera avseenden men övergången mot och hanterandet av IKT är ofta en utmaning för skolor och lärare. Syftet med denna uppsats är att presentera och analysera engelsklärares åsikter gällande användandet av IKT i deras yrke. Uppsatsen identifierar och diskuterar några av de fördelar och nackdelar som finns med IKT i skolan generellt och i förhållande till engelskämnet specifikt. Resultaten analyseras utifrån ett sociokulturellt perspektiv på lärande och den empiriska grunden för uppsatsen är baserad på kvalitativa intervjuer med sex engelsklärare i högstadiet. Resultaten visar att de intervjuade lärarna är optimistiska gentemot de nya teknologierna och att det finns en vilja att vidareutvecklas och lära sig mer om de pedagogiska fördelarna med IKT. Möjligheterna och fördelarna med IKT gör företeelsen oumbärlig, även om det finns hinder i vägen för ett framgångsrikt implementerande i skolan. Dock visar resultaten även att det fortfarande finns utrymme för traditionella läromedel i skolan och lärarna tycks betrakta IKT som ett komplement och önskar inte enbart förlita sig på de moderna teknologierna.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Research in the field of computer assisted language learning and teaching has discussed the necessity of defining a research agenda in area. Because of this, some of these studies have focused on the analysis of research reports to identify the objectives of studies, the methodologies and the themes in order to identify the state of the art. By using a methodology of a research synthesis, this work describes the research practice of the Computer Assisted Language Learning and the discourses which come out this investigation field in relation to what researchers from this area conceive about language and about English as a foreign language teaching and learning. To do that, I collected 123 research articles from specific international journals in the field of Computer Assisted Language Learning and 14 reports from Brazilian journals in the same field which were published from 2005 to 2009. By analyzing the research articles, I have also analyzed the content of the selected articles, the methodology and the results. Then, after the textual analysis, I elaborated an interview through e-mail with the authors of the articles to confirm or deny the data obtained in the textual analysis. The textual and contextual analysis is theoretically based on Genre Analysis and on Critical Discourse Analysis, which helped to describe the theoretical-methodological procedures adopted in this investigation field. The results suggest a field oriented by the investigation of four main themes which are: language, participants, technologies and online pedagogy. The investigation discourses in CALL suggest the existence of an area interested in the analysis of practices such as teach, read and write, virtually speak and communicate, which are done through the Internet. However, the predominant discourse about language in the research has been conceived as a cognitive and social phenomenon. The description of the Research Agenda suggested in this dissertation describes the main themes investigated in CALL, the social and discursive practices which are realizable in the cyberspace and examples of researches oriented by different language concepts. / Pesquisas na área de ensino e aprendizagem de línguas mediados por computador têm discutido a necessidade do estabelecimento da agenda de pesquisa nessa área. Devido a isso, algumas pesquisas têm centralizado na análise de relatos de pesquisas para identificar os objetivos dos estudos, as metodologias e os temas de interesse nessa área de investigação com vistas a identificar o estado da arte. Usando a metodologia de pesquisa de síntese, este trabalho descreve a prática de pesquisa em Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) e os discursos que emergem dessa área de investigação com relação ao que os pesquisadores dessa área concebem por linguagem e pelos processos de ensino e aprendizagem de inglês como língua estrangeira. Para tanto, coletei 123 relatos de pesquisa em periódicos internacionais específicos da área e 14 relatos em periódicos brasileiros sobre a temática de ensino de inglês mediado por computador, os quais foram publicados entre os anos de 2005 a 2009. Na análise textual, analisei o conteúdo dos artigos acadêmicos selecionados, a metodologia e os resultados. Em seguida, elaborei entrevistas via correio eletrônico com os autores dos artigos, para confirmar ou refutar dados obtidos na análise textual. A análise textual e contextual está ancorada teoricamente pela Análise de Gêneros e pela Análise Crítica do Discurso, as quais ajudaram a descrever os procedimentos teórico-metodológicos adotados nessa área de investigação. Os resultados sugerem uma área orientada pela investigação de quatro eixos temáticos, os quais são: a linguagem, os participantes, as tecnologias e a pedagogia online. Os discursos de investigação em CALL sugerem a existência de uma área com interesse na análise de práticas tais como ensinar, ler e escrever, falar e se comunicar virtualmente, que são realizadas na Internet. Porém, o discurso predominante sobre linguagem nas pesquisas é como um fenômeno cognitivo e social. A descrição da Agenda de Pesquisa sugerida nesta tese descreve os temas principais investigados na área de CALL, as práticas sociais e discursivas realizáveis no ciberespaço e exemplos de pesquisas orientadas por diferentes concepções de linguagem.

No âmbito do ensino-aprendizagem de línguas adicionais, pesquisas acerca do desenvolvimento da oralidade têm demonstrado que se trata de um fenômeno multidimensional. Nakatani (2010) mostrou que o domínio de estratégias comunicacionais são indicadores de desempenho linguístico e se relacionam com a proficiência do aprendiz; Kang, Rubin e Pickering (2010) observaram que os traços fonológicos afetam a percepção sobre inteligibilidade e proficiência; Hewitt e Stephenson (2011), e Ahmadian (2012) indicaram que as condições psicológicas individuais interferem na qualidade da produção oral. Escribano (2004) sugeriu que a referência contextual é essencial na construção de sentido; Gao (2011) apontou os benefícios do ensino baseado na construção do sentido, a partir de metáforas conceptuais (LAKOFF e JOHNSON, 1980), codificação dupla (CLARK e PAIVIO, 1991) e esquemas imagéticos (LAKOFF, 1987); e Ellis e Ferreira-Junior (2009) demonstraram que as construções exibem efeitos de recência e priming, afetando o uso da linguagem dos parceiros interacionais. Tais estudos apontam para a natureza complexa da aquisição de L2, mas o fazem dentro do paradigma experimental da psicolinguística. Já Larsen-Freeman (2006), demonstra que a fluência, a precisão e a complexidade desenvolvem-se com o tempo, com alto grau de variabilidade, dentro do paradigma da Teoria da Complexidade. Em viés semelhante, Paiva (2011) observa que os sistemas de Aquisição de Segunda Língua (ASL) são auto-organizáveis. Esses trabalhos, no entanto, não abordaram aprendizes de L2 com proficiência inicial, como pretendo fazer aqui. Tendo como referenciais teóricos a Teoria da Complexidade e a Linguística Cognitiva, o presente trabalho apresenta um estudo de caso, qualitativo-interpretativista, com nuances quantitativos, que discute os processos de adaptação que emergiram na expressão oral de um grupo de aprendizes iniciantes de inglês como língua adicional no contexto vocacional. Parte do entendimento de que na sala de aula vários (sub)sistemas complexos coocorrem, covariando e coadaptando-se em diferentes níveis. A investigação contou com dados transcritos de três avaliações coletados ao longo de 28 horas de aula, no domínio ENTREVISTA DE EMPREGO. Após observar a produção oral das aprendizes, criei uma taxonomia para categorizar as adaptações que ocorreram na sintaxe, semântica, fonologia e pragmática da língua-alvo. Posteriormente organizei as categorias em níveis de prototipicidade (ROSCH et al, 1976) de acordo com as adaptações mais frequentes. Finalmente, avaliei a inteligibilidade de cada elocução, classificando-as em três níveis. A partir desses dados, descrevi como a prática oral dessas participantes emergiu e se desenvolveu ao longo das 28 horas. Os achados comprovam uma das premissas da Linguística Cognitiva ao mostrarem que os níveis de descrição linguística funcionam conjuntamente em prol do sucesso comunicacional. Além disso, demonstram que a função do professor, como discutem LARSEN-FREEMAN e CAMERON (2008), não é gerar uniformidade, mas sim oportunizar vivências que estabeleçam continuidade entre o mundo, o corpo e a mente / In the field of second and foreign language learning, research on oral communication development has been demonstrating that it is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Nakatani (2010) showed that the ability to use communicative strategies is related to linguistic performance and learners proficiency level; Kang, Rubin and Pickering (2010) affirmed that learners phonology affects perception over proficiency and intelligiblity; Hewitt and Stephenson (2011), as well as Ahmadian (2012), contended that individual psychological conditions interfere in the quality of production. Escribano (2004) suggested that contextual knowledge is essential to conceptualization; Gao (2011) pointed out the benefits of an approach based on conceptual metaphors (LAKOFF and JOHNSON, 1980), dual coding (CLARK and PAIVIO, 1991), and image schemas (LAKOFF, 1987); Ellis and Ferreira-Junior (2009) demonstrated that constructions exhibit priming and recency effects, which influence participants language use. These studies together instantiate the complex nature of L2 acquisition on the experimental psychology paradigm. In the scope of Complexity Theory, Larsen-Freeman (2006) demontrated that fluency, accuracy, and complexity increase over time, despite exhibiting high individual variability. By the same token, Paiva (2011) observed that SLA systems are self-organisable. Nevertheless, none of the above-mentioned studies addressed beginners, as we intend to do herein. By overlapping Complexity Theory and Cognitive Linguistics, we present a case study, with sprinkles of quantification, in order to specifically discuss the adaptation processes that emerged from the oral practice of a group of six English beginner female learners (n=6) in the vocational context. We understand that several complex (sub-) systems co-occur in the classroom, covarying and coadapting in different levels. The investigation counted on transcribed data (ATKINSON and HERITAGE, 1984) from three oral evaluations collected over 28 class hours, in the JOB INTERVIEW domain. After observing the learnersoral production, we created a taxonomy to categorise the adaptations that emerged in target language syntax, meaning, fonology and pragmatics. Later, we displayed the categories in prototype levels (ROSCH et al, 1976) in terms of frequency. Finally, we classified the inteligibility of each learners utterance in three levels. By means of these data, we were able to describe how participants oral expression emerged and evolved over 28 hours. The results reaffirm one of Cognitive Linguistics premises when showing that language description levels work jointly in favor of communicative success; and demonstrate that the teacher, rather than generate uniformity, ought to give rise to learning opportunities that provides a continuum between the world, the body and the mind, as discussed by Larsen-Freeman e Cameron (2008)

Ao longo das últimas décadas, foi crescente e notório o aumento de escolas de educação infantil em nosso país. Expandiu-se, em igual proporção, o número de turmas da educação infantil em escolas regulares, já que a própria LDB considera esse âmbito de ensino como parte integrante da educação básica. A fim de agregar um diferencial em sua grade curricular, aulas de língua inglesa como língua adicional são inseridas no currículo de um sem número de instituições nas mais variadas modalidades: aulas de 30 minutos ou 1 hora uma vez por semana, às vezes duas vezes por semana e, até mesmo, em propostas bilíngues, com aulas todos os dias da semana, em cargas horárias das mais diversas. Assim, este estudo propõe-se a uma análise crítica do ensino de língua inglesa como língua adicional para crianças de educação infantil. Foram selecionados como foco de pesquisa o uso da linguagem, a promoção do letramento na língua alvo e as crenças de professores, pais de alunos e coordenadores das instituições de ensino. Para a geração dos dados, duas escolas exclusivamente de educação infantil, duas escolas de educação básica e três escolas de idiomas foram visitadas. Procederam-se observações de aulas, entrevistas com os professores de língua inglesa, com pais de alunos e com as coordenadoras das escolas. Verificou-se que, independentemente da carga-horária oferecida pela escola, usar mais ou menos inglês em sala de aula era uma opção do professor, em acordo com as coordenações das escolas. Observou-se, também, que quanto mais comunicativa a abordagem de ensino, mais havia espaço para a promoção do letramento. E constatou-se que as crenças de pais, professoras e coordenadoras de escolas são pertinentes mas precisam ser ouvidas no contexto escolar de forma a produzir um ensino efetivo e prazeroso para os alunos. / Throughout the last decades, it was noticeably increasing the number of kindergarten schools in our country. It has expanded, in the same proportion, the number of kindergarten classes in regular schools, since LDB (Lei de Diretrizes e Bases) considers this scope of teaching as part of the primary education. In order to add some particularities in its curricula, classes of English as a foreign language has been inserted in hundreds of institutions, in many different approaches: thirty-minute or one hour classes once a week, sometimes twice a week and also in bilingual projects, with everyday classes, in several workloads. So, the aim of this search is to hold a critical analysis on the teaching of English as a foreign language to very young learners. The use of language, the promotion of literacy in the target language and the beliefs of teacher, students’ parents and schools coordinators were selected as the focus of this work. In order to generate the data, two kindergarten schools, two primary schools and three language schools were visited. Classes were observed and interviews with the teachers of English, with the students’ parents and with the schools coordinators were conducted. It was verified that, independently of the workload offered by the school, using less or more English in the classroom was an option made by the teacher, in accordance to the school’s coordination. It was also observed that the most communicative the approach was, the more space to literacy was given. And it was checked that parents’, teachers’, and coordinators’ beliefs are pertinent but need to be heard in the context of the school in order to offer an effective and pleasant learning environment for the pupils.

This study investigates two vocabulary exercises where the participant students receive an assigned set of words to put into sentences, one being a more traditional written exercise, the other being an exercise where students make a vlog using the assigned words. Two upper secondary school classes in Sweden participated in the experiment, including responding to a Likert attitude questionnaire. The hypothesis used in this paper is derived of Pegrum’s third category, of higher integration between school and everyday life, and that this would lead to better results for the students who completed the vlogging exercise. The two participating classes were each divided into two group halves, and each group half received one written exercise and one vlogging exercise – consequently each class half acted as a control group for the other half. The responses gathered were divided into three categories, ‘Correct’, ‘Undetermined’, and ‘Failed’. The results disprove that the vlogging exercise offers a significant improvement over the traditional written exercise, and thusly confirms the No Significant Difference phenomenon.

The aim of this study was to investigate the interrelation between teaching, testing and assessment of English as a foreign language in the Swedish school system. The focus is on the Swedish National test of English, and teaching and assessment of English in Swedish schools. A comparison with the Cambridge testing system is part of the study which has given rise to questions regarding the validity and reliability of the Swedish National test of English. The study was carried out through qualitative questionnaires and interviews aimed at 5 English teachers working within the Swedish School system. The findings of the primary data suggest that the test is, with the exception of its marking procedures, regarded highly by the interviewees. The results of the interviews and questionnaires also suggest that the common factor between teaching, testing and assessment of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) in the Swedish school system appears to be the syllabus and, thus, indirectly, the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).

The syllabi for the subject English in both Swedish compulsory and upper secondary school state in the core content for English that it should provide the opportunity to learn how to use linguistic strategies in speech, i.e. oral communication strategies. However, we as teachers are not informed by these documents what oral communication strategies are and which ones are to be preferred. For this reason, we as future teachers of English, posed the following research questions: What are oral communication strategies according to the literature, and how are these assessed in terms of being positive and negative strategies? According to research what factors correlate with strategy use, and what are the potential pedagogical implications for the Swedish school context? To answer these questions, we have read and analyzed fourteen different empirical studies regarding communication strategies. The first question was answered by analyzing the empirical studies and relevant theory. We found various definitions in our studies, stemming from different theoretical perspectives. However, they all define oral communication strategies as serving the purpose of furthering interaction. Furthermore, by comparing the definitions in the Swedish syllabi for English and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages to our literature, we were able to answer the second part of the first question. The literature shows that there is a preference for achievement strategies over avoidance or reduction strategies. To answer the first part of the second question, some studies indicated a positive correlation between strategy use and the level of proficiency. Regarding pedagogical implications, some studies indicate that explicit strategy training has a positive effect on oral performance. Drawing on the results of these studies and the theoretical framework provided, we conclude that achievement strategies are to be preferred and that they should be taught explicitly.

This study compared strategy use and beliefs about language learning, and the relationship between beliefs and use reported by 428 monolingual Korean and 420 bilingual Korean-Chinese university students. This study also examined the influence of background variables (e.g., gender, self-rated English proficiency, and academic major) on learners' beliefs and strategy use. Data was collected using three questionnaires, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), the Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI), and the Individual Background Questionnaire (IBQ). Data were analyzed using descriptive analyses, principal-component analyses, factor analyses, Pearson r correlation analyses, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and the Scheffé post-hoc test. Monolinguals reported using compensation strategies most, followed by cognitive, metacognitive, memory, social/practical practice, and affective strategies. Bilinguals preferred to use cognitive strategies most, followed by metacognitive and affective, compensation, memory, social, and independent practice strategies. Students from both groups reported low use of social and memory strategies. Despite a less favorable formal English education environment in the Korean-Chinese community and fewer English learning experiences, bilingual Korean-Chinese reported higher use of learning strategies, which indicates bilinguals' superior language learning abilities. Students from both groups had strong instrumental motivation for learning English. Bilinguals held stronger beliefs about the importance of formal learning and felt less fear of speaking English with native English speakers. Significant correlations between strategy and belief variables indicated differences in the impact of beliefs on strategy use for both groups. The result of the MANOVA revealed that bilingual humanities or engineering majors used more strategies and held stronger beliefs about formal learning. Proficiency level was positively correlated with strategy use for both groups. No gender effect on strategy use and beliefs was found. The assumption that differences in the learning experiences of the participants from two distinct geographical and socio-educational learning settings would influence the findings of this study was upheld.