Over the past two decades, India has become an international hub of cross-border surrogacy. The extreme economic and cultural differences between international couples seeking surrogacy and the surrogates themselves, clinics compromising health of surrogates for profit, the stigmatisation of surrogacy in India, and the constant surveillance of these women living in a ‘surrogate house’, have raised concerns regarding the potentially negative psychological impact of surrogacy on Indian surrogates. The primary aims of the thesis were (i) to conduct a longitudinal assessment of surrogates’ psychological problems (anxiety, depression and stress) from pregnancy until several months after relinquishing the baby to the intended parents, (ii) to examine the nature of the bond formed between surrogates and the unborn baby and establish whether this prenatal bond contributes to their psychological problems, and (iii) to explore the experiences of surrogates during and post-surrogacy. Fifty surrogates were compared with a matched group of 69 expectant mothers during pregnancy. Of these, 45 surrogates and 49 compairson group of mothers were followed up 4-6 months after the birth. All surrogates were hosting pregnancies for international intended parents and had at least one child of their own. Data were obtained using standardised questionnaires and in-depth interviews and were analysed using quantitative and qualitative methods. Indian surrogates were found to be more depressed than the comparison group of mothers, both during pregnancy and after the birth. However, giving up the newborn did not appear to add to surrogates’ levels of depression. There were no differences between the surrogates and the expectant mothers in anxiety or stress during either phase of the study. The examination of risk factors for psychological problems among the surrogates showed that anticipation of stigma, experiences of social humiliation and receiving insufficient support during pregnancy were associated with higher levels of depression following the birth. With respect to bonding with the unborn child, surrogates experienced lower levels of emotional bonding (e.g. they interacted less, and wondered less about, the foetus), but exhibited higher levels of instrumental bonding (e.g. they adopted better eating habits and avoided unhealthy practices during pregnancy), than women who were carrying their own babies. Contrary to concerns, greater bonding with the unborn child was not associated with increased psychological problems post-relinquishment. All surrogates were able to give up the child. Meeting the intended parents after the birth positively contributed towards surrogates’ satisfaction with relinquishment whereas meeting the baby did not. The qualitative findings on surrogates’ experiences showed that the majority lacked basic medical information regarding surrogacy pregnancy; hid surrogacy from most people; felt positive and supported at the surrogate house; lived in uncertainty regarding whether or not they would be allowed to meet the intended parents and the baby; and did not actually get to meet them. These findings have important implications for policy and practice on surrogacy in the Global South.

The thesis is conceived in two parts. In the first part, the reader will find an outline of the interdisciplinary topic of the topic, but above all the key findings that K. Horney and M. Seligman developed as part of their psychotherapeutic practice with poorly adapted individuals. The second part is a case study of a long-term marijuana individual. The case study seeks to capture, besides the personal history of an individual, the characteristics of his current life situation and specific circles of his attitudes. The findings are then compared with the findings of the authors, with which the reader has the opportunity to get acquainted with the first part of the thesis.

[pt] Esta dissertação busca delinear o desenvolvimento, articulado com a clínica, do conceito de supereu por Freud e sua revisão por Lacan, para pensar sua reverberação recíproca com a cultura. O supereu freudiano, como instância estrutural do aparelho psíquico, tem sua gênese na identificação com o pai, antes e depois do Complexo de Édipo, ao mesmo tempo em que porta a marca da pulsão de morte. Freud dá ênfase às manifestações cruéis da ação autoritária do supereu que, por produzirem um desprazer do qual pode ser difícil prescindir, constituem importante obstáculo ao trabalho clínico e ao laço social. Lacan desloca a referência freudiana ao pai para o campo da linguagem, articulando a função paterna com a estrutura significante, em detrimento das imagos, indo da conceituação do Nome-do-pai aos Nomes-do-pai em suas dimensões imaginária, simbólica e real. Seus novos conceitos de gozo e objeto a reforçam a centralidade da função superegóica, privilegiando sua dimensão pulsional e alteritária e ampliando a perspectiva dinâmica de sua constituição e de seus efeitos. Em função do deslocamento do conceito da referência de autoridade para a de alteridade e de sua estreita relação com o desamparo, abre-se uma via para propor a articulação do supereu com a visada ética pela qual Freud toma o trabalho clínico da psicanálise como uma obra de cultura. / [en] This work aims to study the theoretical development (articulated with clinical practice) of the superego concept by Freud and its revision by Lacan, and to consider its reciprocal effects on culture. The Freudian superego, as a structural agency of the psychic apparatus, has its origin in the identification with the father, before and after the Oedipus complex, at the same time that carries death drive embedded. Freud emphasizes the cruel manifestation of the authoritarian action of the superego which constitute an important obstacle for the clinic work and the social bonds, once these manifestations produce an unpleasure from which it can be hard to prescind. Lacan changes the Freudian reference of the father to the language field, articulating the paternal function with the signifier s structure, to the detriment of the imagos, going from the concept of Name-of-the-father to Names-of-the-father in its imaginary, symbolic and real dimensions. His new concepts of jouissance and object a, reinforce the centrality of the superegoic function, privileging its pulsional and alterity dimension and augmenting the dynamical perspective of its constitution and its effects. Due to this concept shifting its reference from authority to alterity and its close relation with the helplessness, it gives an opportunity to propose the articulation of the superego with the ethical concerns by which Freud takes the psychoanalytic clinical practice as a work of culture.

This thesis raises diagnosis of the term creativity and related terms in the semantic sphere of students of teaching and primary school teachers. The aim of this work is to find out to what extent the perception of some chosen scholarly concepts are related comparing students of pedagogical faculty and experienced primary school teachers. The theoretical part includes the chapter about the theory of research in pedagogy and defines the method of semantic differential. The next chapter theoretically defines the concepts. The practical part includes the results of the research that are supported by needed tables and graphs.

El objetivo de la investigación fue determinar las propiedades psicométricas del Inventario de Indefensión Aprendida en la Pareja en una muestra de mujeres víctimas de violencia que asisten a un centro psicológico en Lima. La muestra estuvo conformada por 214 mujeres de entre 19 y 60 años años (M = 31.24, DE = 7.85) que hayan sufrido violencia física, psicológica o sexual por parte de sus parejas. Propuesta: "Los instrumentos aplicados fueron Indefensión Aprendida en la Pareja (González & Diaz-Loving, 2015) y la Escala de Dependencia Emocional (Ventura & Caycho, 2016). Mediante el AFC se comprobó la estructura de tres factores evidenciando el siguiente ajuste: (CFI = .92, RMSEA = .10, y χ²/gl = 3.19). Los resultados de confiabilidad en las dimensiones oscilan entre .80 a .84, siendo aceptables. En la validez basada en relaciones con otras variables, los resultados indican correlaciones altas, moderadas y bajas (valores de Spearman entre -.17 y .89). Se concluye que el inventario de Indefensión Aprendida en la Pareja posee adecuadas propiedades psicométricas. / The objective of the research was to determine the psychometric properties of the Inventory of Learned Helplessness in the Couple in a sample of women victims of violence who attend a psychological center in Lima. The sample consisted of 214 women between 19 and 60 years old (M = 31.24, SD = 7.85) who have suffered physical, psychological or sexual violence by their partners. Proposal: "The instruments applied were Learned Helplessness in the Couple (González & Diaz-Loving, 2015) and the Emotional Dependence Scale (Ventura & Caycho, 2016). Through the CFA the structure of three factors was verified, evidencing the following adjustment: (CFI = .92, RMSEA = .10, and χ² / gl = 3.19). The reliability results in the dimensions range from .80 to .84, being acceptable. In the validity based on relationships with other variables, the results indicate high, moderate and low correlations (Spearman values ​​between -.165. and .89) It is concluded that the inventory of Helplessness Learned in the Couple has adequate psychometric properties. / Tesis

The purpose of this research was to describe and explain crimes against women in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. It was conducted by means of a literature review, followed by empirical research, based on police dockets, against the background of Seligman's theory on learned helplessness. The literature review was used to design a research schedule. The schedule was used for data capturing from police dockets from the Crime Information Analysis Centre (QAQ at their Gauteng Regional office in Johannesburg. From this data, a convenience sample, consisting of 303 cases, was compiled. These cases were reported at the charge offices of Pretoria-Moot Villieria, Pretoria-North, Pretoria-West Eersterust and Hillbrow, for the period between 1 January 1997 and 1 March 1998. Finally, recommendations are made for the design of preventative strategies, and suggestions are made for possible future research. / Die doel van hierdie navorsing was om misdade teen vroue in die Gauteng Provinsie van Suid-Afrika te beskryf en te verklaar. Dit is gedoen aan die hand van literatuurstudie, en is uitgebrei met 'n empiriese ondersoek wat op polisiedossiere ebaseer is, teen die agtergrond van Seligman se teorie van aangeleerde hulpeloosheid. Die literatuurstudie is gebruik om 'n skedule te ontwerp. Die navorsingskedule is gebruik vir datavangs uit polisiedossiere. Die polisiedossiere van die Misdaadinligting-Analisesentrum (MIAS) van Gauteng se streekkantoor in Johannesburg is gebruik vir die samestelling van 'n gerieflikheidsteekproef bestaande uit 303 gevalle. Hierdie gevalle kom uit die aanmeldings by die aanklagkantore van Pretoria-Moot/ Villieria, Pretoria-Noord, Pretoria-Wes, Eersterust en Hillbrow, en wel tussen 1 Januarie 1997 en 1 Maart 1998. Ten slotte word aanbevelings vir die ontwerp van voorkomingstrategie gedoen en voorstelle vir moontlike toekomstige navorsing gemaak. / Criminology / M.A. (Criminology)

In the secondary school situation, a pupil needs to read to learn, therefore it is imperative to comprehend what is read. Reading comprehension is one of the two functions of reading and it is dependent on the abilities of the reader, the reader's interpretation of the text and the context in which the text is read. In examining reader characteristics, it is evident that it is very difficult for learning disabled pupils with a reading comprehension deficit to comprehend successfully. Their · unique problems can be exacerbated by such external factors as text components and the context in which the reading takes place. Reading comprehension has been instructed to learning disabled secondary school pupils using reading methods and strategies, to facilitate reading comprehension. From this practical experience and the literature studied, guidelines have been formulated for teachers to use to improve the reading comprehension skills of learning disabled secondary school pupils. / Educational Studies / M. Ed. (Orthopedagogics)

論文摘要 賦能雖是九○年代才興起的管理概念，但卻已造成了組織與管理學者們的研究熱潮。有關賦能的定義，由於學者研究的旨趣各異以致眾說紛紜，然其精義則在於使組織成員更具有能力與活力，而不只是授予必要的權力而已。筆者認為，賦能乃是指創造一個環境，在此環境中組織各階層的員工在其責任範圍內對品質的標準、服務，以及機關的效能等方面具有實質的影響力；再者，每一個人都具有無限之潛力且是樂於工作的，祇要能適當的激發其內在的動機和鼓勵其應用所具備的豐富知識，並授與其在責任範圍內對所擔任之職務有實質的權力，則其潛能將發揮得淋漓盡致，並能擔當重責大任。由於賦能與授權間之被誤解與濫用，使得此兩者的定義早已晦澀不明。實則賦能與授權還是有所區別的，首先賦能的權力是來自於個人本身，權力的增加是透過學習而得來，組織中的權力關係是非零和的；而授權的權力是來自於組織中的職位，權力的增加是來自於層級節制的關係，組織中的權力關係是零和的。賦能所增加的是員工的能力與創造力；授權所增加的是成員的控制幅度。賦能是內在的，係釋放原先屬於個人的權力，此種權力是不能被剝奪也不是從外面賦予增加的；授權則 是外在的。此外，賦能使得員工有結合新任務擴展知識與責任的能力，並非今日人們所談論的授權而已。而賦能亦使員工對工作有擁有威，工作擁有威的產生乃是因為員工經過適當的指導、鼓勵之後，使其成為負責決定政策與規劃的人員之一。因此，賦能的範圍與深度遠超過授權。 賦能的作用，是希望透過對組織中個人層面的賦能，增加個人的能力、活力、創造力，進而實現組織層面的高績效的追求。所以，賦能的目的在個人層面與組織層面是一體兩面的。賦能有多種模式，不論係階段抑或過程模式，吾人可知其並非像變戲法那般的簡單，在實行的過程中必須有各種主客觀因素的配合、高層管理者的大力支持、為員工提供實用的訓練讓員工有學習和成長的機會、實際的授予權力、提供員工解決問題時所需要的資源等等；且經過持續不斷的努力與進行，否則將無法克盡其功。 組織施行賦能策略時可能面臨的問題包括：(一)在一般大型組織中不易實施；(二)機關上下人員間觀點之不同；(三)從事賦能策略時所遭受到的限制，計有： 1.管理者的角色，採取賦能的管理策略，對於組織而言是一項變革，而任何一項變革的開始是要能得到管理者的支持，否則就不易成功，因而管理者在從事賦能時，必須有以下的作法：(1)管理者的承諾、奉獻與企圖；(2)管理者對部屬的信賴與信任；(3)管理者要有豐富的學識、經驗以及溝通的技巧；(4)選擇正確的領導策略及具有遠見。 2.組織的層級節制：在層級節制之下，賦能成員、鼓勵參與、擴大溝通都有其基本的限制，例如，強調服從使得由下而上的管理方式成為不可能，且與賦能的精神相違背。而在另外一方面，造成成員以遵守法規、服從上級為主要目標，不但不能增進個人的創造力，同時亦不易達成組織的目標，形成所謂的「目標置換」的弊病。 3.組織既有的程序、政策、與規則：組織既有的法規，會造成在變革上的阻礙，以遵守現有的程序、法規為目的，而忽略變革的目的，即是在手段目的的連鎖上，只重「工具理性」而忽略「實質理性」。 4.其他的限制：諸如，(1)組織文化的配合程度；(2)實施賦能之後，人人參與，人人平等，外人不易瞭解職位的高低及工作範圍；因此，機關首長害怕採用賦能；(3)實施賦能之後，組織所強調的「創業家精神」，未必能適用於每個人身上。(4)實施賦能時，機關投資在人員的甄選與訓練上的成本較高。 組織施行賦能管理策略問題的解決之道，一般而言，可分為：(一)對員工賦能的策略，分為1.讓員工參與組織不斷改進的計畫與策略；2.訓練員工具備解決問題與決策的能力；3.明定參與感及賦能的提昇為組織的任務；4.建立組織及員工的目標；5.為員工設立一套以顧客為導向的績效評量指標；6.提高每位成員的參與威及加強其能力。(二)創造一個賦能的組織，有下列原則可遵循：1.職位設計要能提供員工「自主權」和「責任感」、「多樣化」、以及同時具有挑戰性；2.形成自我導向的工作團隊；3.提供員工必要的技能訓練；4.提供員工人際關係和問題解決能力的訓練；5.從監督者的角色走到人人是領導者，並對領導者提供訓練；6.全員瞭解並接受共同的願景與價值觀，去引導決策的制定；7.人力資源體系的支援與配合;8.隨著責任感的加重逐步提高授權賦能量。(三)如何在賦能的同時避免失控，一般而言，任何機關組織可利用其組織中的下列系統來避免在賦能時可能造成的失控：1.診斷控制系統：確保重要目標有效達成；2.價值觀系統：塑造並溝通正確的價值觀；3.界限系統，建立遊戲規 則，指出員工必須避免的行為及陷阱；4.交互控制系統：讓高階主管針對策略的不確定性及競爭環境的變化，掌握威脅和機會點，做好事前的因應輿準備。上述四種系統設計的目的在使組織中的管理者能於賦能的過程中找出平衡點，以避免失控。 在組織施行賦能策略時一些原則或步驟必須遵守，方可事半功倍：1.使員工有能力(或賦能)必須藉著給予員工明確的責任來達成；2.賦能必須藉著給予員工權力來達成；3.賦能必須藉著設立優異的標準來達成；4.賦能必須藉著給予員工訓練與發展來達成；5.賦能必須藉著給予員工知識與資訊來達成；6.賦能必須藉著回饋來達成；7.賦能必須藉著對員工的承認而達成；8.賦能必須藉著信任員工來達成；9.賦能必須藉著允許員工失敗來達成；10.賦能必須藉著給予員工尊重而達成。 最後下列的許多問題，可作為後續的研究者在未來繼續從事有關賦能的研究之用，茲將其說明如下： (一)賦能在現存舊有的機關抑或新成立的機關中，較易實施成功？(二)賦能在何種型式的機關中較易實施成功？例如，公家機關、私人機構、抑或非營利機構中較易實施成功？(三)賦能在何種規模的機關中較易實施成功？例如在大型的機關(200人以上)、中型機關(200人以下50人以上)、抑或小型機關(50人以下)較易成功；(四)賦予員工能力時，使用一種抑或同時使用多種干預方法較易成功；(五)從事機關中的賦能活動，是始自於機關中的某一部門抑或整個機關較易成功；(六)從事機關中的賦能活動，是採用機關內部的諮詢專家或是外部的、抑是同時採用內外部的專家較易成功？(七)機關中的賦能活動在有工會的機關抑或無工會的機關中從事較易成功？ 第一章 緒論…………………………………………………… 1 第一節 研究動機與目的…………………………………… 1 第二節 研究方法與限制…………………………………… 5 第三節 研究範圍與章節安排及研究架構……………… 6 第二章 賦能策略之文獻探討……………………………… 10 第一節 賦能之涵義………………………………………… 10 壹 有關賦能的研究文獻…………………………… 10 貳 賦能的意義………………………………………… 17 第二節 賦能之作用……………………………………… 23 第三節 賦能與授權之區別……………………………… 28 第四節 賦能概念之發展…………………………………… 32 壹 管理思潮及管理方式之轉變…………………….. 32 貳 組織採行多樣化管理之趨勢…………………… 40 參 全面品質管理(TQM)對賦能觀念之啟發………… 44 肆 多樣化管理與全面品質管理之關係……………… 51 第五節 賦能模式之探討…………………………………… 54 第三章 賦能策略的實際作法之探討……………………… 71 第一節 從組織文化的層面而言………………………… 71 第二節 從工作團隊的層面而言………………………… 78 第三節 從組織結構的層面而言………………………… 98 第四節 從組織目標建立的層面而言…………………… 100 第五節 組織施行賦能策略的問題與解決之道………… 109 第四章 賦能策略在組織中應用之探討…………………… 120 第一節 組織施行賦能策略之理由………………………. 120 第二節 應用組織發展中之干預技術施行賦能………….. 135 第三節 組織施行賦能策略之程序………………………. 140 第四節 賦能策略與領導…………………………………… 147 壹 領導的意義………………………………………… 147 貳 領導效能…………………………………………… 149 參 領導的研究途徑…………………………………… 150 肆 賦能與權變領導的關係…………………………… 162 伍 領導者的賦能行為之六項條件…………………… 165 陸 有效領導的賦能策略…………………………… 171 第五章 結論與建議…………………………………………… 178 第一節 論文回顧與發現…………………………………… 178 第二節 實務應用與後續研究建議……………………… 193 參考書目………………………………………………………… 198 圖目次 圖1-1 本文研究架構…………………………………………… 8 圖2-1 賦予活力型的管理模式……………………………… 44 圖2-2 賦能過程的五個階段………………………………… 58 圖2-3 賦能的階段及其重要作法…………………………… 61 圖2-4 領導者在四個階段中所扮演的角色………………… 63 圖2-5 賦能之層級水準………………………………………… 65 圖2-6 賦能的過程模式………………………………………… 67 圖3-1 賦能的程度……………………………………………… 80 圖3-2 目標層級………………………………………………… 108 圖4-1 新任務的成果與結果………………………………… 124 圖4-2 組織性無力感的模式………………………………… 125 圖4-3 領導效能研究的四種途徑…………………………… 151 圖4-4 費德勒的權變領導理論………………………………… 155 圖4-5 費氏權變論中的因果關係圖…………………………… 156 圖4-6 郝賽與布蘭查的情境領導論關係圖………………… 157 圖4-7 領導的途徑-目標論中之因果關係………………… 158 圖4-8 途徑目標理論的詳細模型圖………………………… 159 圖4-9 賦能的六項條件………………………………………… 167 表目次 表2-1 組織的類型……………………………………………… 26 表2-2 高績效組織特性之研究成果彙整表………………… 28 表2-3 賦能與授權之區別……………………………………… 31 表2-4 管理方法的改變………………………………………… 33 表2-5 組織中之涉入與賦能之關係………………………… 38 表2-6 傳統組織與被賦能組織的重要不同點……………… 40 表3-1 透過四個階段整合組織文化的過程………………… 77 表3-2 文化整合的每一個階段中個體的行為及思考的差異性………………………………………………………. 77 表4-1 賦能表過程中的領導策略與成員行為反應………… 172 / Empowerment is generally defined as enabling employees in the organizations to have more capability,vitality,and creativity,rather than given them necessary authority.It is also a process of transforming individuals(that is,employees in organization) full of sense of powerlessness into persons who have much more power of self-control and sense of task ownship.This ownship derives from employees' being able to take more responsibility for doing planning and making decisions after they are properly directed and motivated (that is,empowered) .Beside,empowerment is also a key to success in the process of reinventing government.The reason is that the nations' competiveness,in large part,hinges on government employees' potential,vitality,and creativity.This three important abilities,in turn,can be enhanced by effecting the empowerment strategy. There are many distinctions between empowerment and delegation.The most significant ones follows are:1.in the case of empowerment authority comes from employee's self;increase in authority are through learning;the power relationship in organizations are non-zero-sum;empowerment adds to employee's abilities and creativity;empowerment is intrinsic which means releasing power originally belonging to individuals which is undeprivable and can not be offered added onto from outside;empowerment enables employees to take on new tasks,expand knowledge and responsibility.2.in the case of delegation authority is vested in positions;increase in authority are through scalar chain;thus the power relationship is zero-sum;delegation add to employee's span of controll;delegation is extrinsic,which means power is rendered from outside. According the author some principles or guidelines should be followed when empowerment strategies are to be implemented in organizations they are:1.Power through responsibility.2.Power through authority.3.Power through standards of excellence.4.Power through trainning and development.5.Power through knowledge and information.6.Power through feedback.7.Power through recognition.8.Power through Trust.9.Power through permission to fail.10.Power through respect.

The purpose of this research was to describe and explain crimes against women in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. It was conducted by means of a literature review, followed by empirical research, based on police dockets, against the background of Seligman's theory on learned helplessness. The literature review was used to design a research schedule. The schedule was used for data capturing from police dockets from the Crime Information Analysis Centre (QAQ at their Gauteng Regional office in Johannesburg. From this data, a convenience sample, consisting of 303 cases, was compiled. These cases were reported at the charge offices of Pretoria-Moot Villieria, Pretoria-North, Pretoria-West Eersterust and Hillbrow, for the period between 1 January 1997 and 1 March 1998. Finally, recommendations are made for the design of preventative strategies, and suggestions are made for possible future research. / Die doel van hierdie navorsing was om misdade teen vroue in die Gauteng Provinsie van Suid-Afrika te beskryf en te verklaar. Dit is gedoen aan die hand van literatuurstudie, en is uitgebrei met 'n empiriese ondersoek wat op polisiedossiere ebaseer is, teen die agtergrond van Seligman se teorie van aangeleerde hulpeloosheid. Die literatuurstudie is gebruik om 'n skedule te ontwerp. Die navorsingskedule is gebruik vir datavangs uit polisiedossiere. Die polisiedossiere van die Misdaadinligting-Analisesentrum (MIAS) van Gauteng se streekkantoor in Johannesburg is gebruik vir die samestelling van 'n gerieflikheidsteekproef bestaande uit 303 gevalle. Hierdie gevalle kom uit die aanmeldings by die aanklagkantore van Pretoria-Moot/ Villieria, Pretoria-Noord, Pretoria-Wes, Eersterust en Hillbrow, en wel tussen 1 Januarie 1997 en 1 Maart 1998. Ten slotte word aanbevelings vir die ontwerp van voorkomingstrategie gedoen en voorstelle vir moontlike toekomstige navorsing gemaak. / Criminology and Security Science / M.A. (Criminology)

In the secondary school situation, a pupil needs to read to learn, therefore it is imperative to comprehend what is read. Reading comprehension is one of the two functions of reading and it is dependent on the abilities of the reader, the reader's interpretation of the text and the context in which the text is read. In examining reader characteristics, it is evident that it is very difficult for learning disabled pupils with a reading comprehension deficit to comprehend successfully. Their · unique problems can be exacerbated by such external factors as text components and the context in which the reading takes place. Reading comprehension has been instructed to learning disabled secondary school pupils using reading methods and strategies, to facilitate reading comprehension. From this practical experience and the literature studied, guidelines have been formulated for teachers to use to improve the reading comprehension skills of learning disabled secondary school pupils. / Educational Studies / M. Ed. (Orthopedagogics)