This limited scope dissertation deals with the protection against torture in international law. The mechanisms which have been established over the years to protect individuals against torture are analysed. The principles of international customary law dealing with torture and the United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (UNCAT) have been examined against the failure by States to honour their obligations under the Treaty and other legal normative rules. This required deep exploration of the definition of torture and how States can compromise the rule of law by manipulating the definition of torture as contemplated by the Treaty or other instruments. Examples from the former US government highlight the ways in which domestic laws can be used and are continued to be used to allow the use of torture. Measures by South Africa in joining the international community in the fight against torture are also discussed as a case study. While all efforts have been made by the South African system to adopt desirable frame works on the protection of individuals against torture, the lack of education on torture remains the down fall of the system. The dissertation clearly explains that universal jurisdiction applies in respect of torture and this is recognised by both treaty law and customary law. Indeed despite all the current measures in place the use of torture persists. The research clearly reveals that countries hide behind their own laws to perpetrate acts of torture. It is then recommended that proper implementation of the legal structures, informed of the objectives of the structures, is essential in completely eradicating torture. / Public, Constitutional, and International Law / LLM

This thesis investigates both substantive and procedural issues pertaining to allegations of crimes committed by UN peacekeepers in three African countries, Somalia, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Under the current UN Model Status-of-Forces Agreements, criminal jurisdiction over peacekeepers rests with their sending States. However, although the UN has no criminal jurisdiction, it has been the Office of Internal Oversight Services that has conducted investigations. It is argued that every Status of Force Agreement and every Memorandum of Understanding should contain specific clauses obligating Troop-Contributing Countries to prosecute and the UN to follow-up. If rape, murder, assault, and any other crimes by UN peacekeepers go unpunished, the message sent to the victims is that peacekeepers are above the law. Rape is the most commonly committed crime by peacekeepers, but is usually considered as an isolated act. The procedural issue of prosecuting peacekeepers is investigated in order to establish whether troops can be caught under the ambits of the criminal law of the Host State to hold UN troops criminally accountable for their acts. The laws relative to the elements of each crime and the possible available defences under the three Host States, and the criminal law of South Africa as a Troop-Contributing Country, are discussed. The apparent lack of prosecution is investigated and existing cases of prosecution discussed. Alternatives to the unwillingness by States with criminal jurisdiction under the Status of Forces Agreement or under the Memorandum of Understanding are considered. Considering the current rules related to crimes committed by peacekeepers, the argument put forward is that crimes by peacekeepers must be dealt with completely and transparently though a Convention aiming at barring Troop-Contributing Countries who do not meet their obligations under international law from participating in future operations of peace. This thesis, furthermore, suggests a tripartite court mechanism to fill the lacunae in the law relating to the prosecution of peacekeepers. It considers the issues of reserving jurisdiction over peacekeepers to the Troop-Contributing Countries which are reluctant to prosecute repatriated alleged perpetrators. The victims’ importance in criminal proceedings and their their right to a remedy are highlighted. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.D.

Developing an adjudicative institutional framework for effective social security provisioning in South Africa entails the establishment of a system that gives effect to the rights (of access) to social security and to justice. These rights are protected in the Constitution and in various international law instruments. In the Constitution, the Bill of Rights guarantees everyone the right to have access to social security, including appropriate social assistance for persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants. It further requires the State to take reasonable legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to achieve the progressive realisation of the right to access to social security. Since a dispute resolution (adjudication) framework is an integral part of any comprehensive social security system, it is included in the constitutional obligation of the State. The establishment of a social security adjudication system is an intersection of the right of access to social security and the right of access to justice. The Constitution states that everyone has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved by the application of law decided in a fair public hearing before a court or, where appropriate, another independent and impartial tribunal or forum. In addition, other rights protected in the Constitution have a bearing on the realisation of the rights of access to social security and to justice. There is a close correlation between all the rights in the Bill of Rights, as they are interrelated, interdependent and mutually supporting. They must all be read together in the setting of the Constitution as a whole and their interconnectedness must be taken into account in interpreting rights; and in determining whether the State has met its obligations in terms of any one of them. These rights, which include the right to equality (section 9), the right to human dignity (section 10) and the right to just administrative action (section 33) must thus be considered in establishing a social security adjudication system. Also to be considered are other constitutional prerequisites for the establishment of a social security adjudication system, such as the limitation and enforcement of rights (sections 36 and 38 respectively); principles relating to courts and the administration of justice (Chapter 8) and basic values and principles governing public administration (Chapter 10). In establishing a social security adjudication system in South Africa, international law standards and developments in comparative systems must also be taken into account. The Constitution adopts an international law- and comparative law-friendly approach. It states that when interpreting fundamental rights, international law must be considered while foreign law may be considered (section 39). This thesis aims to develop an adjudicative and institutional framework for effective social security provisioning in South Africa that realises the rights of access to social security and to justice in the South African social security system. This is achieved by exploring the concept of access to justice, and its application in the social security adjudication system. The current social security adjudication system is evaluated against the concept of access to justice applicable in international and regional law instruments, comparable South African (non-social security) systems and comparative international jurisdictions. Principles and standards on the establishment of a social security adjudication system are distilled; and a reformed system for South Africa is proposed. / Mercantile Law / LL.D.

Electronic contracts in the new technological age and electronic commerce have brought about world-wide legal uncertainty. When compared to the traditional paper-based method of writing and signing, the question has arisen whether contracts concluded by electronic means should be recognised as valid and enforceable agreements in terms of the functional equivalence approach. This study will examine the law regulating e-commerce from a South African perspective in contrast to international trends and e-commerce law from the perspective of the United States. The research investigates various aspects of contract formation such as time and place, validity of electronic agreements, electronic signatures, attribution of electronic data messages and signatures, automated transaction as well as select aspects of e-jurisdiction from a South African and United States viewpoint. / Mercantile Law / LLM

This study examines the role of customary courts in the delivery of justice in South Sudan. In doing so, it analyses the legal background, the hierarchy and composition of the customary courts. The considerations behind the constitutional recognition of the customary law courts in the current constitutional dispensation and the jurisdiction of customary courts are limited to customary matters and only criminal cases with a customary interface. It is noted that the customary Judges do not only exercise judicial functions but also play executive and legislative functions which contravene the constitutional principle of separation of powers. Reconciliation and compensation are noted as the major principles applied in the customary law courts. The major concern is that most practices in the customary law courts violate fundamental human rights. / Public, Constitutional and International Law / LLM

伴隨著全球化潮流的來臨，國際直接投資金額大幅成長，相對的，投資爭端案件亦持續增加，國際投資人於是迫切期待一個有效而公平之國際投資爭端解決機制。台灣經過多年經濟發展，已成為全球重要對外投資國家，惟根據調查，台灣廠商發生投資爭端，並不擅於利用國際仲裁維護其本身權益。據此，本論文乃針對國際投資協定有關投資人與地主國爭端解決法制加以研析，並希望能對我政府對外談判及廠商對外投資提供具體實用之對策，惟國際間對於投資人與地主國爭端解決機制研究面向相當廣泛，本文研究主軸則以世界銀行於1965年成立之國際解決投資爭端中心(ICSID)之管轄權為中心。 本論文先自投資人與地主國爭端解決機制之發展背景介紹起，並論述1966年生效的ICSID公約主要條款與其他國際投資協定的關係，其後則進一步從ICSID管轄權角度切入，對ICSID對人(ratione personae)及對物(ratione materiae)管轄權相關法律問題逐一說明，並輔以個案加以研析之。 經過上述分析後，本文繼而對現行投資人與地主國投資爭端解決機制提出評論，在制度面方面，本文對ICSID未來運作提出放寬對物管轄範圍、檢討投資未予定義之作法、雙重國籍認定及外國控制的程度與形式等四項改革建議。此外，本文亦針對ICSID管轄權與BITs最惠國待遇條款問題、BITs不同的爭端解決機制所引發程序衝突問題，以及仲裁判斷衝突(conflicting award)問題，說明ICSID公約與BIT所產生之一些法律問題。在未來展望方面，則分析在多邊投資架構是否為解決現階段投資人與地主國爭端解決機制之新契機，以及WTO納入投資人與地主國爭端解決條款之可能性分析，本文末並對我國政府與廠商現階段利用ICSID機制提出建議。 / While the inexorable trend towards globalization has caused international direct investment to grow dramatically, it has also led to a steady increase in the number of investment disputes. International investors therefore eagerly look forward to the institution of an effective and impartial international investment dispute resolution mechanism. Although Taiwan, through its many years of economic development, has become a major source of foreign investment, surveys show that Taiwan firms are not good at using international arbitration to protect their rights and interests in investment disputes. This study accordingly analyzes the investor-State dispute settlement provisions in international investment agreements(IIAs) in an effort to provide concrete, practical strategies for the government of Taiwan in international negotiations and for Taiwanese firms in their foreign investment. Since there is already extensive research literature addressing investor-State dispute settlement mechanisms, this study focuses on the jurisdiction of the International Center for Settlement of Investment Dispute(ICSID) under the aegis of the World Bank in 1965. This study first introduces investor-State dispute settlement mechanisms and their development. Next, the study discusses the main provisions of the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention) came into force on 1966 and its relationship to other IIAs. The study then explains the various legal issues connected with ICSID’s jurisdiction ratione personae and ratione materiae, and finally, analyzes specific cases. The results of the aforementioned analysis are employed to critique existing investor-State investment dispute settlement mechanisms. This study makes four system-related recommendations, namely that the ICSID convention should: 1) liberalize the scope of ICSID’s subject-matter jurisdiction; 2) review undefined investment methods; 3) recognize dual nationalities; and 4) reform the degree and circumstances of foreign control. This study further discusses legal problems related to the ICSID Convention and bilateral investment treaties (BITs), including conflicting awards, procedural conflicts stemming from different dispute settlement forum in BITs, and problems involving ICSID's jurisdiction and most-favored nation(MFN) provisions in BITs. As for future prospects, the study analyzes whether the current multilateral investment framework can resolve the problems of the current investor-State dispute settlement mechanism, and examines the possibility of incorporating investor-State dispute settlement mechanism in the WTO. This study concludes with recommendations concerning how the government and companies of Taiwan can use the ICSID mechanism at the current stage.

由於國際間目前有關國際裁判管轄權之規定尚未統一，各國確立國際民事管轄權之原則或基礎不同，因此，同一涉外案件，有二個或二個以上之國家主張其享有國際裁判管轄權，為甚為常見之情形。本文於第二章即說明了國際裁判管轄權之競合與衝突之問題，其最終之目的係在避免國際私法上之裁判矛盾發生，以促進裁判一致之理想。解決國際裁判管轄權潛在衝突之切入點，應是各國基於公共利益與當事人利益，致力於確立公平、合理之管轄權規則，避免過剩管轄之現象發生，預先防範國際管轄權實質衝突之發生，減少當事人不當挑選法院（forum shopping）之機會。解決國際間重複起訴（即管轄權實質衝突之問題）之切入點，係各國基於當事人之利益（避免當事人重複應訴、避免判決牴觸導致跛行之法律關係）與國際協調之整體利益（促進國際交易之安全與圓滑、促進訴訟經濟），對於已經發生之管轄權實質衝突，於事後採取必要之處理，法院得拒絕行使管轄權、駁回訴訟或停止訴訟（如我國民事訴訟法第一百八十二條之二之規定係採取停止訴訟之方式）。對於此等管轄權之衝突問題，除以國際公約之方式尋求解決外，承認國際裁判管轄之合意與法院之拒絕管轄權限，亦可發揮避免管轄權衝突之功能。 對當事人而言，在一國際民事事件中，若具有管轄權之法院有數個時（即國際裁判管轄權競合之情形），原告原則上得選擇對自己有利之法庭地起訴，此時應避免原告為不公平之法庭地選擇。本文於第三章第一節所論述之當事人「挑選法院」問題，除了各國應致力於確立公平、合理之管轄權規則以尋求解決外，尚有二種避免之方法：一係承認當事人得透過協商之方式為國際裁判管轄之合意，另一係藉由法院「拒絕管轄」之裁量權限，以求調和。 本文於第三章所論述之「國際裁判管轄之合意」，從我國法院之立場觀之，可分為三種型態，即（一）當事人合意選擇我國之法院為管轄法院；（二）當事人為「併存之外國法院合意管轄」；（三）當事人為「排他性外國法院合意管轄」。此三種型態之國際裁判管轄合意，本文認為均應承認其合法性。在要件之探討上，本文認為國際裁判管轄合意之共通要件為：「合意管轄之意思表示一致與不要式性」、「合意管轄不得違反關於專屬管轄之規定」、「合意管轄須非重大之不合理或不公平」、「當事人須有訴訟能力」、「合意須限於第一審法院」及「合意須針對特定之法律關係」等。在「排他性外國法院合意管轄」之情形，因涉及我國法院之法定管轄權是否被排除之問題，我國法院尚須考量「合意管轄法院對該事件依該國法是否有管轄權」，而在合理性原則之分析中，法院亦得斟酌「合意法院之判決將來於我國之承認、執行可能性」。 在國際裁判管轄之合意中，合理性原則之分析，係賦予內國法院一定之裁量權限。其法理依據，與本文第四章所論述之國際裁判管轄權之基本理念有其共通性，即基於「當事人間之公平」、「裁判之適正、迅速」之理念，由法院認定是否有「不合理」之情事。按合意管轄係基於雙方當事人之自主意思而約定，當事人雙方既已就其「實體利益」與「程序利益」之利害狀況作一評估與安排，內國法院原則上應盡量尊重當事人之合意。在例外之情況下，應由反對該合意管轄之當事人負主張及舉證之責任，以該合意管轄約定具有「重大不合理」之情事為限，內國法院始得否認該合意管轄之效力。和第四章本文所述之「拒絕管轄」相同，法院關於「合理性」之裁量權限不宜過大（限於有重大不合理之例外情事），以期在法之一般安定性與個案之具體妥當性中尋求一平衡點。 第四章關於法院之拒絕管轄方面，本文主要以英美法上之「不便利法庭原則」作為論述對象，並與美國法上之「正當法律程序分析」與日本法上之「特別情事原則」作一分析與比較。不便利法庭原則賦予法院拒絕管轄之權，可說係對於原告挑選法院（forum shopping）的一種制衡手段，亦可某程度減少過剩管轄之發生，調和管轄權衝突之問題。然而，不便利法庭原則本身並非剛性規則，而係委由法院自由裁量；若無合理、具體之標準，在適用上將欠缺明確性與預見可能性。不便利法庭原則在美國實務已有高度之發展，然美國在確定是否有國際裁判管轄權時，一方面極力擴大本國之管轄權，另一方面又限制本國法院行使管轄權之權限，自我修正此種過度管轄問題。本文認為，若在檢討國際裁判管轄權之有無時即採取較為限縮的態度，並輔以利益衡量之方式運用裁量權，則承認不便利法庭原則之必要性，即有斟酌餘地。 「特別情事」分析方法已為日本實務上認定國際裁判管轄權時所採取之「標準模式」，於世界各國關於「拒絕管轄」之實務運作上，日本之特別情事分析可說係一經過高度發展、且自成一格之體系。在認定國際裁判管轄權之階段，日本法制係以「法理」（即管轄分配說）之理念為本，以內國民事訴訟法關於土地管轄之規定作為具體認定之標準，並配合「特別情事」原則之分析（即一定之利益衡量）。此等方式，可謂係兼採「逆推知說」、「管轄分配說」與「利益衡量說」之精神，以認定國際裁判管轄權之有無。於管轄權有無之認定階段，日本法院已賦予法院一定之裁量空間，以兼顧個案之具體妥當性，則將英美法上之「不便利法庭原則」導入之必要性並不高。 在我國，適用英美法上「不便利法庭原則」之下級法院裁判為數不少，惟此等裁判多僅將此原則作為「認定國際管轄權有無」之依據，而非在肯認我國有管轄權後進而適用此原則拒絕管轄。因此，不便利法庭原則在我國之適用與英美法院仍有差異。本文認為，我國實務上將不便利法庭原則作為管轄權有無之認定依據之一，實際上僅為管轄權分配規則之一部分而已，採取「利益衡量說」或「修正類推說」，即可達到同樣之目的。本文認為，與其一面採納「不便利法庭原則」、一面改變此原則之固有意義（將之作為管轄權有無之認定標準），不如採納日本法制所發展之「特別情事」原則。 於探討當事人之法庭地選擇與法院之拒絕管轄問題後，本文於第五章進一步說明其二者間之適用關係為何。在國際裁判管轄之合意與不便利法庭原則之適用上，二者間究竟孰為優先，容有爭議。從國際私法與國際民事訴訟法上「普遍主義」之精神觀之，各國之裁判機關應立於世界一體性之立場，以確保國際私法交流之圓滑與安全為目的，並基於國際間之協力而分擔、發揮國際上民商事案件之裁判功能，則內國法院對於外國當事人所為之「授與管轄權」之合意，應隨著國際趨勢承認之，並行使管轄權。從國際裁判管轄合意之功能性分析之，國際裁判管轄合意具有固定法廷地（forum fixing）之機能，解決管轄權規則不可避免之法律上衝突與矛盾；若減少管轄權規則之衝突，則同一事件重複起訴之情形亦能避免，對於當事人之程序利益之追求，對於國際間裁判矛盾之防止，均有裨益。因此，國際裁判管轄之合意應優先尊重，合意管轄之法院不宜適用不便利法庭原則以拒絕管轄。 本文探討者，係國際裁判管轄權之重要問題，於探討後回歸本論文之研究動機：如何致力於確立公平、合理之管轄權規則，消除過剩管轄之現象，並防範國際裁判管轄權衝突之發生，以期促成「國際間裁判一致」之理想？ 在我國法制上，本文認為，宜以法律之一般安定性為原則，以具體妥當性為例外。在國際裁判管轄權之認定上，以「管轄分配說」之理念為基礎，將國際裁判管轄之分配理解為：基於國際間之協力而分擔、發揮國際上民商事案件之裁判功能（即普遍主義之理念）。具體之認定過程中，原則上以民事訴訟法關於土地管轄之規定作為參酌之依據，惟仍須斟酌涉外事件之特殊性，例外時從事利益衡量。如此，較能兼顧「法的一般安定性」（即明確、可預測）之要求與「具體妥當性」之要求。 在各國法制上，關於國際裁判管轄權之認定規則，多有不同，大陸法系國家與英美法系國家有其不同之管轄體系，各國究以何種方式認定裁判管轄權，若無公約在各國間加以規範，恐難防範國際裁判管轄權衝突之發生。因此，國際間公約之締結或區域性立法仍係日後各國所應努力之方向。於二ＯＯＯ年十二月二十二日歐盟理事會正式通過之「民商事管轄權及判決承認與執行條例」（簡稱「歐盟管轄條例〈44/2001〉」），係對「歐洲共同體民商事事件管轄及判決執行公約」（「布魯塞爾公約」）進行修訂與更新之結果，已於二ＯＯ二年三月一日生效。此條例即為此一發展趨勢之指標。海牙國際私法會議長久以來亦在國際管轄公約方面有相當之努力，其於一九九九年海牙國際私法會議於特別委員會中作成「民事及商事事件管轄權與外國判決效力之公約準備草案」（簡稱「海牙管轄公約草案〈1999〉」），惟該公約草案自二ＯＯ一年六月召開之外交大會以來，因為各國間對於某些重要之條文多有意見之差異與對立，故至今仍未通過。由此觀之，目前欲使多數國家接納此種大規模條約之制定，實有重大困難。 在各國之間合理分配國際裁判管轄權，係為了提供更有效率、更合理之紛爭解決方式，並使裁判在國際社會間不受妨礙地自由流動。在世界各國程序規範尚未統一之今日，各國法院就每一案件所為之「國際裁判管轄權之認定」，應盡量客觀、公正，而非任由各國法院基於主觀或國家利益，而犧牲國際經濟、社會整體之秩序與和諧。從而，一國法院於判斷國際裁判管轄權時，應盡可能不受不確定之偶然因素或人為因素（如當事人挑選某國法院起訴）之支配，而以客觀、公正之態度認定「最適之管轄法院」為何，以期在「國家主權利益」、「當事人之利益（實體利益與程序利益）」及「國際民商法律秩序之整體利益」三者之間尋求一個合理之平衡點。或許，只有在世界各國均朝此方向努力，國際私法關於世界法之統一與避免裁判歧異之理想，始具有實現之可能性。

L’amélioration de la qualité de l’utilisation des médicaments dans les soins primaires est devenue un enjeu crucial. Les pharmaciens communautaires se présentent comme des acteurs centraux dans l’atteinte de cet objectif, en réclamant une extension de leur rôle. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est de mieux comprendre comment les technologies de prescription informatisée (eRx) influencent la transformation du rôle des pharmaciens communautaires. Le premier article présente les résultats d’une étude de cas qui aborde la transformation du rôle des pharmaciens communautaires à partir du concept de professionnalisation. Elle propose un modèle logique des influences d’une technologie de eRx sur cette professionnalisation, élaboré à partir de la typologie de Davenport. Ce modèle logique a été validé en interviewant douze pharmaciens communautaires participant à un projet pilote typique de technologie de eRx. A partir des perceptions des pharmaciens communautaires, nous avons établi que la technologie était susceptible de soutenir la professionnalisation des pharmaciens en passant par cinq mécanismes : la capacité analytique, l’élimination des intermédiaires, l’intégration, l’automatisation et la diffusion des connaissances. Le deuxième article analyse les perturbations induites par les différentes fonctions des technologies de eRx sur la stabilité de la juridiction des pharmaciens communautaires, en se basant sur un cadre de référence adapté d’Abbott. À partir de trente-trois entrevues, avec des praticiens (médecins et pharmaciens) et des élites, cette étude de cas a permis de décrire en détail les influences des différentes fonctions sur les modalités d’action des professionnels, ainsi que les enjeux soulevés par ces possibilités. La perturbation principale est liée aux changements dans la distribution des informations, ce qui influence les activités de diagnostic et d’inférence des professionnels. La technologie peut redistribuer les informations relatives à la gestion des médicaments autant au bénéfice des médecins qu’au bénéfice des pharmaciens, ce qui suscite des tensions entre les médecins et les pharmaciens, mais aussi parmi les pharmaciens. Le troisième article présente une revue systématique visant à faire une synthèse des études ayant évalué les effets des technologies de eRx de deuxième génération sur la gestion des médicaments dans les soins primaires. Cette revue regroupe dix-neuf études menées avec des méthodes observationnelles. Les résultats rapportés révèlent que les technologies sont très hétérogènes, le plus souvent immatures, et que les effets ont été peu étudiés au-delà des perceptions des utilisateurs, qui sont mitigées. Le seul effet positif démontré est une amélioration de la qualité du profil pharmacologique accessible aux professionnels, alors que des effets négatifs ont été démontrés au niveau de l’exécution des prescriptions, tels que l’augmentation du nombre d’appels de clarification du pharmacien au prescripteur. Il semble donc que l’on en connaisse peu sur les effets des technologies de eRx de deuxième génération. Ces trois études permettent de constater que les nouvelles technologies de eRx peuvent effectivement influencer la transformation du rôle du pharmacien communautaire en perturbant les caractéristiques des prescriptions, et surtout, l’information et sa distribution. Ces perturbations génèrent des possibilités pour une extension du rôle des pharmaciens communautaires, tout en soulignant les défis intra et interprofessionnels associés à l’actualisation de ces possibilités. Dans l’ensemble, nos résultats soulignent que les perturbations associées aux technologies de eRx dépassent les éléments techniques du travail des utilisateurs, pour englober de multiples perturbations quant à la nature même du travail et du rôle des professionnels. Les décideurs et acteurs impliqués dans le déploiement des technologies de eRx auraient avantage à prendre en compte l’ensemble de ces considérations pour rapprocher les effets observés des bénéfices promis de ces technologies. / The quality of medication use in primary care needs to improve: this has become a crucial issue. Community pharmacists want to play a key role in meeting this objective and are calling for an expanded role. The main objective of this thesis is to better understand how electronic prescription (eRx) technologies are influencing the transformation of the role played by community pharmacists. The first article presents results from a case study on the transformation of the community pharmacists’ role, based on the concept of professionalization. It proposes a logical model of how an eRx technology influences this professionalization, developed from the Davenport typology. The logical model was validated by interviewing twelve community pharmacists participating in a typical pilot project involving an eRx technology. Based on the perceptions of community pharmacists, we have determined that there are five mechanisms by which the technology is likely to support the professionalization of pharmacists: analytic capacity, the elimination of intermediaries, integration, automation and the dissemination of knowledge. The second article analyzes the disturbances produced by the various functions of eRx technologies on the jurisdiction of community pharmacists, based on an adaptation of Abbott’s model. Using data from 33 interviews with practitioners, physicians and pharmacists, as well as elite members of these two professions, this case study provides a detailed description of how different functions influence professionals’ modalities of action, as well as the issues raised by these possibilities. The primary disturbance is associated with changes in the distribution of information, which can influence the diagnostic and inference activities of professionals. The technology may redistribute information on the management of medication to the benefit of both physicians and pharmacists, and this creates tensions, not only between physicians and pharmacists but also among pharmacists. The third article presents a systematic review that synthesized studies assessing the impacts of second-generation eRx technologies on the management of medication in primary care. It examined 19 studies that applied observational methods. The findings reveal that the technologies are very heterogeneous and often far from mature, and that their effects received little attention beyond the perceptions of users, which were mixed. The only positive impact shown is an improvement to the quality of the pharmacological profile available to professionals. Negative impacts touched on the execution of prescriptions, such as a greater number of calls from pharmacists to prescribers to clarify information. It would therefore appear that little is known about the impacts of second-generation eRx technologies. These three studies allow us to conclude that new eRx technologies may well influence how the role of the community pharmacist is being transformed, specifically by disturbing the characteristics of prescriptions and, above all, information and its distribution. These disturbances generate opportunities for extending the role of community pharmacists, while underscoring the intra and interprofessional challenges associated with their realization. Overall, our results suggest that the disturbances associated with eRx technologies go beyond technical aspects of users’ work, to include multiple disturbances of the very nature of the professionals’ work and role. The decision makers and actors involved in deploying eRx technologies would be well advised to take all these considerations into account to bring the observed effects of these technologies more in line with their promised benefits.

This diploma thesis focuses on the analysis of the constitution of marriage legal regulation in the new Civil Code and the relating legislation. Primarily, it deals with the concept and the purpose of marriage, along with the moment of its constitution and, it outlines alternative forms of entering into marriage. The thesis further analyses the difference between the civil and religious marriage. The major chapter is devoted to entering into marriage with an international jurisdiction conflict because the number of marriages between Czech citizens with foreigners continues to increase. It becomes more frequent that the Czech citizens enter into marriage abroad. At the end, the causes and consequences of the putative marriage and the invalidity of the entering into marriage are examined.

Le 17 février 1800, la création du Conseil de préfecture, contemporaine de celle du Conseil d’Etat moderne, marque un tournant dans l’histoire de la justice administrative en France. Pourtant, malgré le renouveau de l’histoire du droit administratif depuis une quarantaine d’années, le Conseil de préfecture reste le plus souvent considéré comme ne faisant partie que de la préhistoire de la juridiction administrative moderne. L’image du Conseil de préfecture est celle d’un organe administratif à peu près inutile, d’un simple bureau de contentieux composé de juristes de second ordre inféodés au préfet. La récurrence de ces jugements soulève une réelle interrogation scientifique qui ne pouvait être utilement abordée que par l’étude du fonctionnement concret de cette institution. Ainsi, l’exploration de l’histoire du Conseil de préfecture de la Gironde, dans sa praxis quotidienne, permet de vérifier si, malgré les carences de la loi du 28 pluviôse an VIII, sa fondation a ou non marqué l’émergence d’une juridiction administrative moderne dans ce département. / On February 17, 1800, the creation of the Council of prefecture, contemporary of that of the modern Council of State, marks a turning point in the history of administrative justice in France. However, despite the revival of the history of the administrative law in the last forty years, the Council of prefecture is remains most often regarded as belonging to the prehistory of modern administrative jurisdiction. The Council of prefecture is viewed as a virtually useless administrative organ, as a simple legal department composed of second class lawyers paying allegiance to the prefect. The recurrence of these judgments raises a real scientific interrogation which could usefully approached by the study of the concrete function of this institution. Thus, the exploration of the history of the Council of prefecture of the Gironde, in its daily praxis, allows the verification if, despite the deficiencies of the Law of the 28 pluviôse, year VIII, its foundation has or not marked the emergence of a modern administrative jurisdiction in this department.