Les normes procédurales sont susceptibles d'affecter les stratégies mises en place par les parties à un litige. Nous étudions leur impact sur le volume des contentieux et sur le montant des dépenses engagées par les parties afin de gagner le procès. Ces deux composantes du coût social des litiges sont au coeur des défis que les pays développés doivent relever pour garantir l'effectivité des règles de droit substantiel. Nos travaux portent en particulier sur les règles de preuve, et nous mettons l'accent sur l'opposition entre les règles civilistes et celles de common law.Après avoir défini les contours et les enjeux de notre sujet dans l'introduction générale, nous développons un plan en deux parties. La première partie porte sur le comportement des parties lorsque celles-ci ont la possibilité de parvenir à un accord. Des modèles stratégiques et optimistes sont développés pour appréhender les décisions d'aller en justice et de négocier. La seconde partie est centrée sur le processus de production de preuves qui précède l'audience finale. Nous utilisons des modèles de recherche de rente pour analyser les incitations des parties à engager des dépenses.Les résultats suggèrent que les règles de preuve ont un impact considérable sur le coût social des contentieux. Nous montrons que le volume des litiges en France et aux Etats-Unis peut s'expliquer par les différentes règles de preuve s'appliquant dans ces deux pays. Notre analyse révèle également que les règles de preuves constituent un déterminant majeur du coût privé des litiges et des stratégies de défense des défendeurs. / Procedural rules are likely to affect the strategies of the parties in a dispute. We study their impact on the volume of litigation and on the amount of legal expenses incurred by parties to win the trial. These two components of the social cost of litigation are at the heart of the challenges that must be addressed by developed countries to guarantee the effective enforcement of the substantive law. Our works relate more specifically to rules of proof, and the emphasis is given on the opposition between civilian and common law rules. After defining the scope and the stakes of the thesis in the general introduction, we develop a plan in two parts. Part I studies parties' behavior when they have the possibility to negotiate to avoid a trial. Strategic and divergent expectations models are developed to apprehend parties' decisions to sue and to settle. The second Part is oriented toward the evidence production process preceding the final hearing. We use rent-seeking models to analyze parties' incentives to engage legal expenditures.The results suggest that rules of proof have a substantial effect on the social cost of litigation. We show that the volume of litigation in the US and in France can be explained by the various rules of proof prevailing in these two countries. Moreover, our analysis reveals that the rules of proof constitute a major determinant of the private cost of litigation and of defendant's defense strategies.

Le rôle que joue le tribunal arbitral dans l'établissement du contenu du droit applicable n'est pas déterminé dans la plupart des législations d'arbitrage. Cette défaillance du cadre légal conduit à l'interprétation du principe jura novit curia en matière d'arbitrage international. Certes, une transposition pure et simple dans cette matière dudit principe, tel qu'il est appliqué devant les tribunaux étatiques, n'est pas sans difficulté. Néanmoins, en vue de consolider la confiance des parties dans la justice arbitrale et améliorer sa qualité, le tribunal arbitral doit avoir un rôle prépondérant vis-à-vis du droit applicable. En outre, l'office de l'arbitre doit intégrer l'emprise croissante des principes procéduraux fondamentaux. L'administration de la preuve juridique durant l'instance arbitrale s'accomplit à travers différents outils et méthodes. Ces derniers sont, de nos jours, très harmonisés dans les différentes législations et ce grâce à l'effort considérable déployé par les différentes institutions d'arbitrage. Néanmoins, en dépit de leur utilisation fréquente, de leur évolution croissante et leurs avantages indéniables, certains inconvénients persistent et contredisent parfois les besoins d'efficacité et de célérité recherchés par les compromettants. D'autres méthodes, spécifiques pour la preuve juridique, devraient émerger pour une meilleure administration de la justice. Il ne faut toutefois pas privilégier simplement une solution rapide du litige. Il faut qu'elle soit également acceptable et juste aux yeux des parties. Un outil de contrôle de la phase post-arbitrale, qui vise à vérifier si le contenu «censé» établi du droit applicable est correctement appliqué par l'arbitre aux faits de l'espèce, doit pouvoir exister et être efficace. Une telle mesure doit cependant être respectueuse du principe de non révision au fond des sentences. / The role of the arbital tribunal in the establishment of the content of the applicable law on the merits is not envisaged in most of the arbitration statutes. This brings us to examine the principle ''jura novit curia" and the opportunity of its application to international arbitration. Applying this principle in the same way it is applied before state courts to international arbitration has led to several difficulties. However in order to encourage the parties to resort to arbitration and to increase their trust in this conflict resolution mechanism, the arbitrator must be actively involved in the establishment of the content of the applicable law. Moreover, the "ex officia" attributions of the arbitrator should always comply with the due process principles. The administration of the proof of the applicable law during an arbitration procedure is nowadays standardized in most of the different law systems, due to the continuous efforts of the arbitration institutions. However, and despite the numerous advantages of the current methods of establishment of the applicable law, many difficulties are still encountered, which is diminishing the efficiency and the celerity expected by the parties from the arbitration process. Therefore, news methods should be developed, without however compromising the quality of the justice rendered: a post arbitral control must be implemented in order to verify whether the arbitrator has correctly applied the law on the merits "as previously established" to the case at hand, while respecting the principle of non review of the award on the merits.

Il existe des algorithmes en meilleur d'abord efficace pour la résolution des jeux déterministes à deux joueurs et à deux issues.Nous proposons un cadre formel pour la représentation de tels algorithmes en meilleur d'abord.Le cadre est suffisamment général pour exprimer des algorithmes populaires tels Proof Number Search, Monte Carlo Tree Search, ainsi que l'algorithme Product Propagation.Nous montrons par ailleurs comment adapter ce cadre à deux situations plus générales: les jeux à deux-joueurs à plusieurs issues, et le problème de model checking en logique modale K.Cela donne lieu √† de nouveau algorithmes pour ces situations inspirés des méthodes Proof Number et Monte Carlo.La technique de l'élagage alpha-beta est cruciale dans les jeux à actions séquentielles.Nous proposons une extension de cette techniques aux stacked-matrix games, une généralisation des jeux à deux joueurs, à information parfaite et somme nulle qui permet des actions simultanées. / Efficient best-first search algorithms have been developed for deterministic two-player games with two-outcome.We present a formal framework to represent such best-first search algorithms.The framework is general enough to express popular algorithms such as Proof Number Search, Monte Carlo Tree Search, and the Product Propagation algorithm.We then show how a similar framework can be devised for two more general settings: two-player games with multiple outcomes, and the model checking problem in modal logic K.This gives rise to new Proof Number and Monte Carlo inspired search algorithms for these settings.Similarly, the alpha-beta pruning technique is known to be very important in games with sequential actions.We propose an extension of this technique for stacked-matrix games, a generalization of zero-sum perfect information two-player games that allows simultaneous moves.

Les outils technologiques sont omniprésents dans la société et leur utilisation est de plus en plus grande dans les salles de classe. Du côté de l'enseignement et de l'apprentissage des mathématiques, ces outils se sont vu attribuer des rôles qui ont évolué avec les années. Les rôles de soutien, de visualisation et d'enrichissement des contenus en sont des exemples. Une utilisation des outils technologiques dans l'enseignement s'accompagne d'apports pragmatiques et épistémiques potentiels, mais comporte également des limites et des risques. Il s’avère important d’examiner le rôle accordé à l’outil technologique dans les activités qui le mobilisent. Puisque le raisonnement mathématique fait partie d'une des compétences visées à l’école (MELS, 2006) et que les futurs enseignants semblent accorder moins d'importance à la validation et la preuve comme composantes de ce raisonnement (Mary, 1999), nous émettons l'hypothèse qu'une séquence d'activités montrant la complémentarité de la preuve et des explorations tirant parti de la technologie pourrait aider les futurs enseignants à mieux saisir ces enjeux. La présente recherche s’appuie sur l'ingénierie didactique pour développer et valider une séquence d'activités intégrant le logiciel GeoGebra. Cette séquence d'activités a été conçue dans les buts suivants : initier les futurs enseignants en mathématiques au secondaire à un logiciel de géométrie dynamique et leur donner l'occasion de voir des activités mathématiques utilisant la technologie et visant le développement du raisonnement, par l’articulation de l’exploration et de la preuve. Le cadre théorique sur lequel repose cette recherche intègre des éléments de l'approche anthropologique (Chevallard, 1992, 1998, 2003) et de l'approche instrumentale (Vérillon et Rabardel, 1995; Trouche, 2000, 2003, 2007; Guin et Trouche, 2002). Certaines idées sur les constructions robustes et molles (Soury-Lavergne, 2011), la distinction figure/dessin (Laborde et Capponi, 1994) et le réseau déductif (Tanguay, 2006) ont servi de repères dans la construction de la séquence d'activités. Cette recherche s'est déroulée au cours de l'hiver 2016 dans une université québécoise, dans le cadre d’un cours de didactique de la géométrie auprès de futurs enseignants au secondaire en mathématiques. Un questionnaire pré-expérimentation a été rempli par les participants afin de voir leurs connaissances préalables sur les programmes, les outils technologiques ainsi que leurs conceptions au sujet de l'enseignement et de l'apprentissage des mathématiques. Par la suite, les étudiants ont expérimenté la séquence d'activités et ont eu à se prononcer sur les connaissances mises en jeu dans chacune des activités, l’opportunité de son utilisation avec des élèves du secondaire, et les adaptations perçues nécessaires pour sa réalisation (s'il y a lieu). Des traces écrites de leur travail ont été conservées ainsi qu'un journal de bord au fur et à mesure du déroulement de la séquence. En triangulant les diverses données recueillies, il a été constaté que la séquence, tout en contribuant à l’instrumentation des participants au regard du logiciel utilisé, a eu chez certains d’entre eux un impact sur leur vision du développement du raisonnement mathématique dans l’enseignement des mathématiques au secondaire. L’analyse des données a mis en lumière la place accordée au raisonnement par les futurs enseignants, les raisonnements mobilisés par les étudiants dans les diverses activités ainsi que des indices sur les genèses instrumentales accompagnant ces raisonnements ou les induisant. Suite à l’analyse de ces données et aux constats qui en découlent, des modifications sont proposées pour améliorer la séquence d’activités. / Technological tools are ubiquitous in society and their use is growing in the classroom. In mathematics education, these tools have been assigned roles that have evolved over the years: support, visualization, content enrichment. The use of technological tools in education comes with potential pragmatic and epistemic contributions, but also has limitations and risks. We must therefore examine at the activity level the role technology should play. Mathematical reasoning is one of the competencies aimed by school (MELS, 2006) and future teachers seem to place less emphasis on validation and proving processes as components of this reasoning (Mary, 1999). We hypothesize that a sequence of activities showing the complementarity of the proving processes with explorations leveraging technology could help future teachers better understand these issues. This research is based on didactical engineering to develop and validate a sequence of activities with GeoGebra software. The sequence of activities has been designed to: introduce pre-service secondary mathematics teachers to dynamic geometry software and give them the opportunity to see mathematical activities using technology that aim at developing mathematical reasoning and proof. The theoretical framework on which this research is based integrates elements of the anthropological theory of the didactic (Chevallard, 1992, 1998, 2003) and of the instrumental approach (Vérillon and Rabardel, 1995; Trouche, 2000, 2003, 2007; Guin and Trouche, 2002). Some ideas on robust and soft constructions (Soury-Lavergne, 2011), the distinction between figure and drawing (Laborde and Capponi, 1994) and the deductive network (Tanguay, 2006) served as benchmarks in the construction of the sequence of activities. This research took place at a Quebec university during the winter of 2016, in a geometry didactics course for pre-service secondary mathematics teachers. A preliminary questionnaire was given to the participants to capture their prior knowledge of programs, technological tools and conceptions about mathematics teaching and learning. Subsequently, the students experienced the sequence of activities and had to decide on the knowledge involved in each activity, the relevance of its use with high school students, and the perceived adaptations necessary for its realization (if considered). Written traces of their work have been kept as well as a diary as the sequence unfolds. By triangulating the various data collected, it was found that the sequence, while contributing to the instrumentation of the participants with regard to the software used, had, for some of them, an impact on their vision of the development of mathematical reasoning in mathematics education at secondary level. The analysis of the data highlighted the place given to the reasoning by the future teachers, the reasonings mobilized by the students in the various activities and also signs of the instrumental geneses inducing these reasonings and accompanying them. Following the analysis of these data and the findings that follow, modifications are proposed to improve the sequence of activities.

[pt] Atualmente, a maioria dos programas para computadores é obtida através da WEB. Como muitas vezes a procedência são fontes desconhecidas, é preciso se certificar de que o código se comporta como o esperado. A solução ideal seria verificar o código contra uma especificação de políticas de segurança ,contudo, isso pode consumir muito tempo.Uma outra alternativa é fazer com que o próprio código prove ser seguro. O conceito de proof-carryng code (PCC)é baseado nessa idéia : um programa carrega consigo uma prova de sua conformidade com certas políticas de segurança. Ou seja ,ele carrega uma prova a respeito de propriedades do próprio código. Portanto, os mesmos métodos froamsi usados para a verificação de programs podem se utilizados para esta tecnolgia. Considerando este fato,neste trabalho é estudado como cálculo de Hoare, em método formal para realizar a verificação de programas, aplicado a códigos-fonte escritos em uma linguagem de programação imperativa, pode ser útil á tecnica de PCC. Conseqüentemente, são pesquisados métodos para a geração de provas de correção de programas utilizando o método citado, para tornar possível a geração de provas de segurança para PCC utilizando o cálculo de Hoare. / [en] Nowdays most computer programs are obtained from the WEB. Since their source is usually unknown, it is necessary to be sure that the code of the program behaves as expected.The ideal solution would be verify the code against a specification of safety policies.However, this can take too much time.Another approach is making the code itself prove that it is safe. The concept os proof-carryng code (PCC) is based on this idea: a program carries a proof of its conformity with certain safety policies. That is , it carries a proof cencerning properties related to the code itself. Therefore, the same formal methods employed in formal verification of programs can be used in this tecnology. Due to this fact, in this work it is studied how Hoare logic applied to source codes written in an imperative programming language, which is a formal methods are researched to generate proofs of program correctness using the method explained, so that it can be possible to generate PCC safety programs with Hoare logic.

稅務案件涉及稅捐核課之行政程序和爭端解決之訴訟程序，兩者皆採職權調查主義，當事人對於待證事實之主張及證據聲請不拘束行政機關與法院，其得依其職權就必要且可能之證據為調查。而因稅務案件量大且相關證據皆處於納稅義務人之管領範圍下，致職權調查待證事實困難，故有當事人協力義務之規範，兩者相互影響。若當事人不盡其協力義務將可能使證明度降低，並於審判最終待證事實仍真偽不明時，以客觀舉證責任為判決分配。本文分析現行法規範下行政與訴訟程序中有權機關職權調查、當事人協力義務、證明度調整與舉證責任之分配，並以營利事業所得稅常見之爭議為例，探討現行實務作法是否與理論一致，並於文末提出相關現行作法之修改或法規範之建議，以供參酌。 / Tax administrative lawsuits involve administrative procedures and administrative litigation. Both administrative procedures and administrative litigation follow the inquisitorial investigation. Tax authorities and courts can investigate the facts and circumstance according to their authority and are not restricted by the declaration of the parties. However, due to the fact of a large number of tax administrative lawsuits and tax information often accessible only to taxpayers, tax authorities and courts may encounter great difficulties in the inquisitorial investigation. Therefore, taxpayers are obligated to assist tax authorities to investigate the relevant facts and circumstance. Taxpayers’ obligation to assist tax authorties may have a counter-effect on tax authorities’ obligation to follow the inquisitorial investigation. When the cooperative obligation falls on the party, it may cause essening of the standard of proof. If there still not knows the truth at the end of final judgment, using objective burden of proof to allocate the judgment. This thesis study the relationship between the inquisitorial investigation of the authority, cooperative obligation of the taxpayer, standard of proof adjustments, and the current burden of proof of legal norms. By examining the tax administrative litigation cases concerning the Profit-Seeking Enterprise Income Tax, this thesis analyzes the discrepancy in the practice and the theory, and concludes with relevant suggestions to improve current practice and legal norms.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Augusine's search for the nature of God's exisistence as well as the origin of evil, reaches a climax in Book 7 of his Confessions. This study assumes the position that Augustine strives to find answers to the above mentioned two questions in the first six books of the Confessions. The answers to both these questions were vitally important to Augustine, since it would then convince him to convert to the Christian faith. Augustine repeatedly thought he grasped the true answer to the existence of God and the origin and the nature of evil but he was disillusioned time and again. His quest for an answer started with his reading of Cicero's Hortentius (Conf. 3.4.7), a book that urged Augustine to search for Truth. Augustine then joined the Manicheans, a sect claiming that their doctrine was based on reason and contained the Truth (Conf. 3.6.10). Augustine believed that the Manicheans could resolve his quest for answers to the existence and nature of both God and evil. The Manichean intellectual and scientific exposition of the cosmos allowed Augustine to imagine God and evil as opposing substances. Eventually, promted by his own intellect, Augustine discovered weaknesses in their theories (Conf. 5.3.3-5.6.10). Augustine's final break with the Manicheans, after nine years as an adherent, came when he heard the sermons of Ambrose of Milan. Not only was Augustine impressed by Ambrose's eloquence but his sermons also embodied an interpretation of Platonism in Christian terms. Augustine's reading of the Neoplatonic books in a Latin translation urged him to turn into himself (Conf. 7.10.16) and search for God there. Once Augustine could pronounce upon the intelligible existence of God, his inquiry into the origin of evil resolved itself (7.12.18). / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Augustinus se soeke na die bestaanswyse van God en die aard en onstaan van die kwaad bereik 'n klimaks in Boek 7 van die Confessiones. In hierdie studie word daar van die standpunt uitgegaan dat Augustinus onder andere in die eerste ses boeke van die Confessiones poog om antwoorde te kry op bogenoemde twee vraagstukke. Antwoorde op beide hierdie vrae was van kardinale belang, aangesien dit Augustinus sou oortuig om hom tot die Christelike geloof te bekeer. Augustinus het herhaaldelik gepoog om die ware antwoorde op die vraag na bestaanwyse van God sowel as die oorsprong en die aard van die kwaad te vind. Hy was egter telke male ontnugter. Augustinus se soeke het begin toe hy in aanraking gekom het met Cicero se Hortensius (Conf. 3.4.7), 'n boek wat Augustinus aangemoedig het om die Waarheid na te jaag. Gevolglik het Augustinus by die Manicheërs aangesluit, aangesien dié sekte geglo het dat hulle leerstellinge gebaseer is op die rede en sodoende die volle waarheid bevat (Cant. 3.6.10). Augustinus het geglo dat die Manicheërs sy soektog na antwoorde op die vraag van God en die kwaad se bestaanswyse kon oplos. Die Manicheërs se intellektuele en wetenskaplike uiteensetting van die kosmos het Augustinus toegelaat om God en die kwaad as teenstrydige entiteite te beskou. Ongeveer nege jaar na sy aansluiting by die Manicheërs, aangemoedig deur sy eie intellek, het Augustinus die swak punte in die Manichese leerstellinge ontdek (Cant. 5.3.3-5.6.10). Die finale breek met die Manicheërs het gekom toe Augustinus die preke van Ambrosius in Milaan gehoor het. Nie alleen was Augustinus ingenome met Ambrosius se welsprekendheid nie, maar sy preke het ook die interpretasie van Platonisme in Christelike terme beliggaam. Die Neoplatoniese leerstellinge het Augustinus aangemoedig om na homself, in homself te draai (Conf. 7.10.16) en vir God daar te gaan soek. Sodra Augustinus kon verklaar dat God in die vorm van 'n kenbare wese bestaan, het sy soeke na die oorsprong en die aard van die kwaad dit self opgelos (Cant. 7.12.18).

The principal claim defended in this thesis is that for Aristotle arousing the emotions of others can amount to giving them proper grounds for conviction, and hence a skill in doing so is properly part of an expertise in rhetoric. We set out Aristotle’s view of rhetoric as exercised solely in the provision of proper grounds for conviction (pisteis) and show how he defends this controversial view by appeal to a more widely shared and plausible view of rhetoric’s role in the proper functioning of the state. We then explore in more detail what normative standards must be met for something to qualify as “proper grounds for conviction”, applying this to all three of Aristotle’s kinds of “technical proofs” (entechnoi pisteis). In the case of emotion, meeting these standards is a matter of arousing emotions that constitute the reasonable acceptance of premises in arguments that count in favour of the speaker’s conclusion. We then seek to show that Aristotle’s view of the emotions is compatible with this role. This involves opposing the view that in Rhetoric I.1 Aristotle rejects any role for emotion-arousal in rhetoric (a view that famously generates a contradiction with the rest of the treatise). It also requires rejecting the view of Rhetoric II.2-11 on which, for Aristotle, the distinctive outlook involved in emotions is merely how things “appear” to the subject.

ropositional proof complexity is the study of the resources that are needed to prove formulas in propositional logic. In this thesis we are concerned with the size and space of proofs, and in particular with the latter. Different approaches to reasoning are captured by corresponding proof systems. The simplest and most well studied proof system is resolution, and we try to get our understanding of other proof systems closer to that of resolution. In resolution we can prove a space lower bound just by showing that any proof must have a large clause. We prove a similar relation between resolution width and polynomial calculus space that lets us derive space lower bounds, and we use it to separate degree and space. For cutting planes we show length-space trade-offs. This is, there are formulas that have a proof in small space and a proof in small length, but there is no proof that can optimize both measures at the same time. We introduce a new measure of space, cumulative space, that accounts for the space used throughout a proof rather than only its maximum. This is exploratory work, but we can also prove new results for the usual space measure. We define a new proof system that aims to capture the power of current SAT solvers, and we show a landscape of length-space trade-offs comparable to those in resolution. To prove these results we build and use tools from other areas of computational complexity. One area is pebble games, very simple computational models that are useful for modelling space. In addition to results with applications to proof complexity, we show that pebble game cost is PSPACE-hard to approximate. Another area is communication complexity, the study of the amount of communication that is needed to solve a problem when its description is shared by multiple parties. We prove a simulation theorem that relates the query complexity of a function with the communication complexity of a composed function. / <p>QC 20170509</p>

L'apprentissage de l’algèbre abstraite semble correspondre, pour les étudiants de niveau universitaire ou collégial, à l'introduction d'une multitude de nouveautés conceptuelles. Afin de mieux comprendre les raisons du taux d'échec important mesuré dans cette discipline, nous avons tenté de dégager les obstacles ou les difficultés rencontrés et nous les avons regroupés en quatre familles. Sur la base d'un exemple tiré d'une séquence d'introduction à l'algèbre abstraite et des productions des étudiants, nous relèverons que, en plus de devoir franchir un cap dans le niveau d'abstraction requis, les étudiants sont, souvent pour la première fois de leur parcours, confrontés à une théorie axiomatique développée comme telle, à des définitions de nature essentielle dont l'emploi va parfois à l'encontre du sens usuel, à l'absence de représentation graphique ainsi qu'à un processus de preuve formelle pour lequel ils n'ont été jusque-là que peu entraînés. / For university or college students, the learning of abstract algebra seems to involve a multitude of conceptual innovations. To better understand the reasons for the high failure rate in abstract algebra courses, we have aimed at identifying the obstacles or difficulties encountered and grouped them into four families. Based on an example from an introductory sequence in abstract algebra, we will show that in addition to having to reach an unprecedented level of abstraction, students, often for the first time in their mathematical instruction, have to face simultaneously an axiomatic theory developed with essential type definitions that seem to go against the usual meaning, a lack of graphical representation as well as a process of formal proof for which they had little to no training.