In 2007, one current and two former sex workers, Amy Lebovitch, Terri-Jean Bedford and Valerie Scott launched a charter challenge, Bedford v Canada, arguing that the prostitution provisions criminalizing bawdy houses (section 210), living on the avails (section 212 (1)(j)) and communicating for the purposes of prostitution (section 213.1 (c)) violated their section 7 rights under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Six years later, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unanimously to strike down all three challenged laws, leaving a one-year period to construct a new regime on prostitution. On December 6, 2014, the Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act (PCEPA) came into effect, criminalizing, for the first time, prostitution in Canada and introducing a law that replicates many of the provisions of the previous regime. This thesis uses semi-structured interviews and qualitative analysis to examine the experiences of nine street-based sex workers in Ottawa, paying particular attention to experiences after the introduction of the new law. Drawing on the work of Mead & Blumer’s symbolic interactionism theory and Goffman’s concept of stigma the thesis examines how embedded stereotypes in legislation ‘play out’ in the lives of sex workers. I argue that the interactions of sex workers in Ottawa are conditioned by stereotypical assumptions which in turn lead to their broader discrimination and marginalization. This study concludes by finding that the first objective of PCEPA, to protect those who sell their own sexual services, has not been met; instead, PCEPA has resulted in street-based sex workers in Ottawa assuming more risk, and in turn, facing more danger while on the job.

Syftet med denna systematiska litteraturöversikt är att undersöka forskningsläget kring hur människor som har prostituerat sig upplever orsakerna till vägen in i prostitutionen då det i samband med arbetet kan uppstå mycket fysisk och psykisk utsatthet. Genom att skapa en större förståelse kring processerna in i prostitution kan preventionsarbetet utvecklas och förekomsten av prostitution, samt den utsattheten som uppstår, minska. För att uppnå syftet har följande frågeställning använts: Hur ser forskningsläget ut gällande upplevelser av orsaker till vägen in i prostitution av individer som någon gång haft sex mot ersättning? Frågeställningen har besvarats genom en systematisk litteraturöversikt och analyserats genom en latent innehållsanalys. Studien är baserad på relevant forskning kring människors upplevelser av vägen in i prostitution från USA, Kanada, Slovenien, Spanien, Storbritannien och Holland. Genom kodning skapades huvud- och subteman kring upplevda orsaker av vägen in i prostitution. Resultatet visar att de upplevda orsakerna till prostitution främst har grundat sig i ersättning, individernas sociala nätverk, individernas livssituation samt ett intresse för arbetet. Ett särskilt framträdande tema i samtliga studier var ersättning. Aktörer som skola, socialtjänst och polis bör arbeta med att tydligt förmedla kunskap kring de medföljande riskerna av prostitution samt göra andra valmöjligheter tydligt tillgängliga för de som befinner sig i en svår ekonomisk eller social situation. / The aim of this systematic literature review is to examine the current existing research regarding how individuals who have been involved in prostitution perceive the causes of the way into prostitution, due to the connection between this type of work and the physical and mental vulnerability that it causes. By creating a bigger understanding of the processes into prostitution, the preventive work can develop and the occurrence of prostitution, and the vulnerable exposure that occurs, can decrease. To achieve the aim of the study, the following question has been used: What does the existing research say regarding perceptions of causes of the entry into prostitution by individuals who, at some point in their life, have had sex in exchange for compensation? The question has been answered through a systematic literature review and analyzed through a latent content analysis. The study is based on relevant research regarding individuals’ perceptions of the entry into prostitution from USA, Canada, Slovenia, Spain, Great Britain, and Holland. Through coding, main themes and subthemes were created regarding perceived causes of entry. The results show that the perceived causes of entry into prostitution is based in compensation, the individual’s social network, the individual’s life situation and an interest of the labor. A particularly prominent theme in all studies was compensation. Actors such as school, social services, and law enforcement should work with informing, and being clear about the following risks of prostitution and make other possible choices for making money available for the people living in a hard economic or social situation.

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In South African Law, sex work is currently mainly dealt with in terms of the Sexual Offences and Related Matters Act 32 of 2007, although other legislation, such as the Aliens Control Act 3 of 1993 also contains provisions that are peripherally relevant to sex work. In addition, municipal by-laws play an important role in the regulation of sex work, especially outdoor sex work. These by-laws are often aimed at addressing the more visible aspects of outdoor sex work. This dissertation aims to analyse the policing methods used by the police when policing sex work in Sunnyside, and whether the police have the ability and capacity to enforce current legislation in this regard. The enormous incidents of dehumanization and abuse of sex workers by the police who are supposed to enforce the Sexual Offences Act 32 of 2007 and the previous legislation on sex work questions whether the police should be given more or less powers in dealing with this crime. This dissertation aims to conduct an in-depth analysis of relevant literature in order to provide a background for the discussion on the origins of sex work and the different legal models for dealing with sex work. The study also endeavours to establish a frame of reference for considering different legal models to deal with sex work and to identify different policies and legal approaches to sex work, and to consider the impact of the current laws regulating sex workers and the harm that result from this. The dissertation aims to explore and describe the challenges that the police in Sunnyside experience, and also to analyse the difficulties that sex workers often encounter. The knowledge generated in this study will enhance the existing knowledge in the policing of sex work, and will also serve to educate the police, criminal justice institutions, and the community about the nature and extent of the problems that policing agencies experience when policing sex workers in Sunnyside. / Police Practice / M. Tech. (Policing)

“Area restriction” is the umbrella term used for this thesis to consider geography-based, individually- assigned orders issued by criminal justice agents to remove and restrict targets from particular city spaces. This research focuses on 13 Canadian cities that use arrest-and-release area restriction strategies to managing street sex work(ers). Despite heavy criticism for their punitive nature, area restrictions have received little academic attention. This project takes an exploratory and descriptive approach to the issue in order to develop a platform for future research. Using qualitative, non-experimental methods it also critically analyzes the implementation, logic and reported impacts of the strategies while drawing implications for how area restrictions relate to citizenship statuses of sex workers by mapping exclusions onto the city. Multiple data sources were included but the most significant and compelling information comes from interviews with police officers and community agency workers. Findings suggest that area restriction strategies contribute to substantial social divides between sex workers and other community members, but also between sex workers and important services, resources and their community. At the same time, the strategy is reported as a “temporary relief” measure that is ineffective at lessening sex trade activity and often leads to displacement and dispersal of sex work(ers). However, collaborative efforts in some cities show promise for achieving goals of ‘helping sex workers off the street.’ Realistic recommendations for area restriction strategies are made that lead to more inclusive approaches that are considerate of needs and concerns of all interest groups linked to the “prostitution problem.”

In 1999, Sweden was the first country in the world to criminalize the buying, but not the selling, of sexual services. This law is based on the ideological stance that transactional sex is to be understood as men’s violence against women. Since 1999, however, various studies have shown that not only women sell sex, but that a large number of sex workers are men and transgender. The aim of this study is to investigate how Sweden’s national board of health and welfare (Socialstyrelsen) constructs and presents the gender and sexuality of individuals who are engaged in transactional sex. Educational materials on transactional sex, created by Socialstyrelsen and aimed at health care professionals who work with said individuals, have been processed using critical discourse analysis as elaborated by Fairclough. In this educational material, individuals who engage in transactional sex are portrayed primarily as victims; as such, they lack agency to represent themselves and their situation to the various authorities. Furthermore, professionals who work in this field have asked for methods to talk about transactional sex with their clients, but the material does not supply any such methods or vocabulary. Instead, it is mainly focused on the clients’ need for therapy.

Ce mémoire interroge les possibilités présentes et futures d’actions concertées pour remettre en question les structures sociales d’exclusion qui affectent des groupes désignés à risque, entre autres en les rendant plus vulnérables à l’infection au VIH. En Inde, l’attention grandissante portée aux travailleuse(r)s du sexe (TS) par la santé publique dans les interventions contre le VIH contribue à façonner l’identité des groupes ciblés en les associant à l’épidémie du VIH et à sa prévention. L’acceptation et la réorganisation de cette catégorie servent de base d’organisation d’efforts collectifs pour un groupe de TS de Mysore, dans l’état du Karnataka. Les membres de ce collectif, nommé Ashodaya, déploient des actions concertées pour remettre en question les limites de catégories qui leur sont assignées (avec des tentatives pour désamorcer certaines dynamiques d’exclusion sociale -en limitant la stigmatisation), et s’imposer comme un groupe de citoyennes à part entière en s’incluant dans des sphères civiles comme citoyens, comme représentants d’une occupation et non comme individus marginalisés ou « représentants » d’une maladie. L’inclusion d’Ashodaya dans les efforts de prévention du VIH offre un accès à des ressources humaines et matérielles qui lui seraient autrement inaccessibles, mais limitent les possibilités d’actions du groupe en restreignant sa participation à la prévention. Le contexte particulier de l’engagement et du programme d’Avahan, branche indienne de la Bill and Melinda Gates souligne la fragilité des acquis de groupes comme Ashodaya. / This thesis questions the present and future possibilities for concerted actions to challenge social exclusion structures affecting social groups designated as being at risk, in part by making them more vulnerable to HIV infection. In India, the increasing attention given to sex workers (SW) by public health instances in HIV prevention contributes in shaping the identities of the targeted groups as associated to the epidemic and its prevention. The acceptance and reorganization of this label of SW act as basis for the organization of collective efforts for a SW organization in Mysore, in the state Karnataka. The members of this collective, named Ashodaya, use concerted actions to question the limits of these assigned labels (with attempts to defuse certain dynamics of social exclusion associated with stigmatization), and impose itself as a group of full-fledge citizens by including themselves in civil life as citizens representing an occupation, and not as marginalized individuals or “representative” of a disease. The inclusion of Ashodaya in the HIV prevention efforts offers an access to human and material resources that would not be otherwise available. However, it also limits its action possibilities in restricting its participation to prevention. The particular context of the engagement and the program of Avahan, Indian chapter of the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation, highlight the fragility of the work of groups like Ashodaya.

MA, Forced Migration Studies, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, 2011. / Rationale: Urbanization is rapidly taking place in Africa: fifty percent of the continent‘s population is expected to be living in urban areas by 2030 (Kok and Collinson in Vearey 2010b). Both internal1 and cross-border migrants2 are moving into South Africa’s urban centers at a faster rate than her neighboring countries; approximately 60 percent of the population is estimated to be urban (ibid). The worldwide increase in urbanization requires that research recognize the trajectories of people moving into these urban spaces, as well as the experiences that people encounter as they navigate urban centers (Kihato, 2010, Landau 2006a, 2006b, Vearey 2010a, 2010b, Venables, 2010). Many migrants in inner-city Johannesburg engage in unconventional survival strategies, including sex work (e.g. Richter 2010). Although sex work is considered an informal livelihood strategy, it is currently illegal in South Africa (UNAIDS, 2009). Research on sex work in South Africa is limited; however, there is significant evidence that sex workers in inner-city Johannesburg experience unsafe, unhealthy- often times violent- working and living conditions (e.g. Nyangairi, 2010, Richeter, 2010). This research is primarily interested in exploring the ways in which “marginalized” urban migrant groups choose to represent themselves versus the incomplete (re) presentation that is often relegated to them. A focus on representation will provide an opportunity for policy makers, programmers and academics to gain insight and better comprehend the experiences of migrant urban populations. In this case, the researcher is looking specifically at migrant women who sell sex as an entry point into the larger issues of (re) presentation among individuals and communities who are often described as “vulnerable” and/or “marginal”. Aim: The aim of this research project is to explore how migrant women who sell sex in Hillbrow, Johannesburg (re) present themselves, and how (or not) urban space affects these self- (re) presentations. Methods: The epistemological framework for the methodologies used in this study was Participatory Action Research (PAR), and the primary data collection methodology used consisted of an eleven-day participatory photo project where the research participants were given digital cameras and asked to photograph the “story” that they would like to share. Upon completion of the participatory photo workshop, five research participants were randomly selected to participate in 2-3 sessions of in-depth, semi-structured narrative interviews where the researcher explored the choice of photos taken, as well as the reasons why the photos were selected to (re) present themselves. Conclusion: This study has shown that use of Participatory Action Research as an epistemological framework is both conducive and appropriate when researching ‘hard to reach’ groups of people residing in complex urban areas. Furthermore, this research signals the need for greater inclusion of participants in studies aimed at understanding individual/group experience, especially when working with marginalized communities. This study also reveals a host of future research opportunities for those interested in exploring: (1) identity in urban space/urban health, (2) livelihood experiences/strategies of people living in densely populated urban spaces, (3) issues of belonging and access to health care, (4) impacts of structural violence on the lives of migrant women sex workers, (6) ways that perceptions and representations are impacted in group settings, and (5) the use of ‘innovative methodologies’ as a viable tool in social science research.

This dissertation engages with the driving motivations behind the actions of all those involved in The Gambia’s tourism-based sexual economy: the Gambian and other West African male and female sex workers, the Global North (habitually European) male and female tourists, the Gambian and expatriate Lebanese bar and restaurant owners, the Gambian state, and the semesters (members of the Gambian diaspora on vacation in The Gambia). It presents thick ethnographic accounts of interactions with Gambians and tourists, as they form temporary couples or friendships for the duration of tourists’ vacations, and sometimes for longer. This ethnography-rich dissertation pays careful attention to Gambian voices, which have been somewhat marginalized in the limited literature on sex tourism in The Gambia. It theorizes the existence of a Gambian sexscape, within which socio-sexual scripts are performed. The socio-sexual scripts that make the Gambian tourism-based sexual economy are re-located within Gambian society’s larger sexscape, which allows for a better consideration of the wider socio-economic, cultural, and political processes that have led to the formation of contemporary Gambian society. The dissertation briefly outlines The Gambia’s political and economic history, which explains the ongoing economic dependency and the importance of emigration for contemporary Gambian youth who want to escape the abject poverty in which too many live. It proposes a descriptive analysis of the Gambian sexscape and its socio-sexual scripts. Greater precision is given to the socio-sexual scripts that make the tourism-based sexual economy: chanters and white Global North female tourists; Gambian female sex workers and white Global North male tourists; Gambian men who have sex with Gambian men/semesters, and/or with white Global North male tourists. Finally, I adopt a socio-ecological approach to sexual health and examine the tourism-based sexual economy’ s impact on the country’s sexual health.