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This thesis is engaged in the theme of natural law, especially in sources of natural law - in theories, which are labelled as "classic". The thesis focuses on these theories (Aristotle, stoicism, Thomas Aquinas) and their common points, which are proper to these theories. That is the object of this thesis. These points present the essence of natural law. The first part explains problem of the term "natural law". The second part deals with the classic theories. The third chapter summarises findings of the second part. The fourth part is devoted to the similarity between the classic theories and the modern (enlightenment) theories. This chapter is devoted to the connection between natural law and positive law too.

[pt] Tese em que se desenvolve um modo de interpretar o ceticismo Antigo, especialmente o pirrônico, e que isenta a dýnamis cética da acusação de apraxía. Essa via média interpretativa emerge como um modo de superar as aporias entre as interpretações rústica e urbana e tem sua eficácia testada quando aplicada como ferramenta exegética para Contra os Retóricos. / [en] Thesis in which we develop a way to interpret the Ancient skepticism, especially the pyrrhonic one, and we exempt the skeptical dýnamis of the apraxia’s accusation. This interpretive middle way emerges as a mode to overcome the aporias between the rustic and urbane interpretations, and it has its efficiency tested when applied as an exegetical tool for Against the Rethors.

Au-delà d’être un poème didactique, les Phénomènes d’Aratos sont un poème pédagogique qui unit étroitement le fond et la forme. On y trouve une conscience méthodique de la construction d’un savoir ; l’analyse du vocabulaire, pourtant issu de la poésie homérique, révèle une réflexion sur la transmission scientifique déjà définie comme un processus dynamique, à une époque où les écoles et leurs méthodes sont encore jeunes : percevoir, délimiter, nommer, et enfin assurer la conservation d’un objet de science. Cette idée de transmission prouve la préoccupation pédagogique d’Aratos, qu’il met en scène dans le poème à travers des figures de maîtres et d’élèves. Il s’y lit, notamment dans le mythe de l’Âge d’Or, une foi en la collaboration entre tous les vivants, fondée sur un respect qui tranche avec la dureté des poèmes didactiques archaïques. La pédagogie devient dans les Phénomènes un enjeu poétique : Aratos définit le poète comme un des membres de cette collaboration universelle, derrière laquelle il doit s’effacer, dans une éthique et une esthétique de l’anonymat qui remettent en question le kléos archaïque. La tradition poétique peut désormais être bousculée au nom de la transmission scientifique, et cette nouvelle conception n’est pas sans rappeler les récentes critiques opérées par Platon. Tout se passe comme si Aratos avait voulu relever le défi que Platon a lancé aux poètes de son temps : chanter le Dieu et sa création selon le Vrai ou le Vraisemblable, et devenir par son chant l’éducateur de la cité idéale. C’est probablement la réussite de cette gageure qui a assuré la gloire des Phénomènes dans les siècles où la philosophie de Platon a été suivie et admirée. / The Phaenomena by Aratus are not only a didactic, but also pedagogical poem, in which form and content are tightly bound. One may find in it a methodical conscience of how knowledge is built; the analysis of vocabulary, although taken from Homeric poetry, shows that scientific transmission is already understood as a dynamic process, in a time when schools and their proceedings were still young : to perceive an object of science, to delimitate it, to name it, and at last to guarantee his preservation. This idea of transmission proves that Aratus is concerned with pedagogy, which is illustrated in the poem through different figures of masters and pupils. We can observe, especially in the myth of the Golden Age, all his faith in the collaboration between all kinds of living being bound together by a respect that is really different from the harsh tone of archaic didactic poetry. In the Phaenomena, pedagogy becomes a poetic matter: Aratus defines the poet as a member of this universal collaboration, behind which he has to fade because of an ethic and an aesthetic of namelessness; so is the archaic kleos questioned. Poetic tradition can be shaken up in the name of scientific transmission, and this new conception may remind us of Plato’s recent criticism. Apparently, Aratus did want to take up Plato’s challenge to the poets of his time: to sing the God and his creation according to Truth or Verisimilitude, and to become the teacher of an ideal state, thanks to his song. In all likelihood, Aratus’fame came from the success of this wager, during all the centuries when Plato’s philosophy was followed and admired.

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L’immense panoplie d’ouvrages et de travaux consacrés tant au cinéma qu’au jeu vidéo s’évertue très souvent à examiner une œuvre quelle qu’elle soit dans son ensemble, ou à relier des motifs similaires entre plusieurs cas pour en dégager des concepts, des notions et des lignes théoriques. Plus rarement la question des plans, des segments bien spécifiques d’un film ou d’un jeu a été abordée, en particulier les fragments ou les détails se plaçant en porte-à-faux par rapport à la continuité habituelle du reste de l’œuvre. Soudainement, ce personnage d’apparence statique en avant-plan contemple une temporalité affolée en arrière-plan, ou une section de ce film génère de la curiosité vis-à-vis du reste de sa narration. Ces points spéciaux étonnent, surprennent, et attirent l’attention en se demandant quelle est leur fonction aussi bien narrative qu’esthétique. La philosophie antique et ses synthèses contemporaines inspirent un terme, celui de « résistance vitaliste » qui ne frictionne qu’avec une section de la structure sans en chambouler les fondations, dans le seul but de manifester son existence, mue par la volonté de se déclarer au grand jour. Les conséquences sur les protagonistes de l’histoire n’en sont pas moins négligeables, car ces segments spéciaux requièrent également une attention de leur part, et alimentent leur désir de résister à leur tour, tantôt dans l’alignement esthétique de ce point de l’œuvre, tantôt contre. La même philosophie antique désigne dans pareil cas de figure une démarche de délibération, de jugement du pour et du contre, première phase essentielle pour entrer en résistance. Le héros devient alors Sage – également d’inspiration antique –, un être apte à éclairer les zones obscures et à percer l’apparente stabilité de l’autorité en place en s’attaquant à ces nœuds névralgiques. La présente thèse s’accordera à déplier cette analyse sur quatre chapitres qui l’emmèneront du particulier au général, en considérant la matière filmique même et l’entité enregistreuse (la caméra) en première instance, avant de passer aux relations entre la matière du médium et le personnage qui s’en délie, puis aux fragmentations des univers diégétiques en présence, pour enfin questionner le contexte global dans lequel l’œuvre est nécessairement saisie, fournissant les clefs de la résistance par « guérilla ». La délibération, le Sage et la résistance seront constamment au cœur des préoccupations, dès lors que le Diable se cache dans les détails. / The tremendous amount of academic papers dedicated both to cinema and video games often examine any work through its general structure, or link similar motives between several examples in order to conceptualize notions or theoretical frames. The problem of shots, or of specific fragments in a film or a video game, has been rarely questioned, particularly some peculiar details that stick out and go against the overall flow of the work involved. For instance, a static-looking character in the foreground of a picture gazes at another kind of temporality in the background (in slow or fast motion, for example), or a section of a film seems aesthetically odd compared to the rest of the narration it is inserted in. Those special bits tend to surprise the viewer, and attract their attention whilst the latter wonders about both the narrative and aesthetic role of those fragments. The antic philosophy and its modern synthesis inspire the concept of “vitalist resistance”, designating a contradictory element (even a counter-element) in one or a couple of parts of the whole structure without intending to make its foundations collapse, for the sole purpose of manifesting itself, motivated by the desire to exist in plain sight. The consequences on the protagonists of the story are far from being insignificant, since those particular segments call out to their attention as well, and incite them to resist, either alongside the aesthetic involved, either against. In such case, the same philosophy points out the necessity of making decisions, judging the pros and cons as the essential first step to resisting. The hero thus becomes a Sage – inspired by the antic philosophy as well –, in other words, an individual capable of enlightening obscure parts of the world and shaking the apparent stability of the present authority, by mincing onto those delicate bits. This thesis spreads out its analysis over four chapters that will develop the actual subject from the particular to the general, first by considering the film matter itself and the recording entity (the camera), before examining the connections between that matter and the character who unbinds himself from it, the shattering of diegetic universes, and finally the global context in which the work (film or video game) is inevitably set in, leading a “guerilla” kind of resistance. The process of decision making, the Sage and the resistance will all be at the very heart of the present work, since the Devil lurks in the details.

La tesi si occupa di verificare l’influenza che i classici greci e latini hanno esercitato su i padri fondatori americani e più in particolare su Thomas Jefferson. La prima sezione tratteggia il contesto universitario e lo studio delle lingue classiche tra seicento e settecento, comprendendo non solo le università inglesi (Oxford e Cambridge) e scozzesi, ma anche i nuovi college nati nelle colonie americane. Tale analisi dei modelli e delle pratiche educative ha permesso, in effetti, di comprendere meglio l’influenza dei classici sui rivoluzionari americani. Nello specifico viene scandagliata a fondo l’educazione ricevuta da Jefferson. Tra i numerosi spunti di studio aperti da codesto argomento, il lavoro si concentra sulle modalità con cui i classici gli furono insegnati, sul suo Commonplace Book (una raccolta di brani tratti in parte da autori antichi letti in giovinezza) e su documentazione epistolare. Quest’ultima è oggetto particolare di studio, allo scopo di scoprire quali opere antiche Jefferson, in età adulta e durante la vecchiaia, lesse e apprezzò. Essendo un collezionista di libri, comprò moltissimi testi classici come dimostrano alcuni suoi manoscritti. Nonostante manchino dati precisi a riguardo, risulta inoltre che Jefferson, benché facesse largo uso di traduzioni, preferiva leggere in originale e che probabilmente abbia letto la maggior parte di questi libri durante il ritiro dalla vita politica. La seconda parte della tesi si concentra, invece, a indagare quanto la sua educazione classica abbia contributo alla formazione della sua personalità e delle sue idee, nonché alla forma stessa del suo pensiero in merito ad alcune tematiche. Lo studio è di conseguenza dedicato all’esperienza umana di Jefferson, in particolare alla sua riflessione sulla morte e sull’eternità, temi fortemente legati alla sua ricezione di idee epicuree e stoiche. Epicureismo e Stoicismo rappresentano, in definitiva, i due sistemi filosofici antichi che hanno maggiormente influenzato la sua personalità e il suo pensiero. / The aim of the present work is to evaluate the impact of the ancient classics on the American Founding Fathers, with a particular focus on Thomas Jefferson. The first section gives a wide portrait of the academic context in which the Founders were educated, comprising not only of Oxford, Cambridge, and the Scottish universities, but also the colonial colleges. The evaluation of the educational practices in use at the time makes it possible to understand better the classical impact on revolutionary Americans. In particular, this analysis studies in depth Jefferson's education. Of the many possible perspectives and approaches to this topic, the present work focuses on the way ancient classics were taught to him, his Commonplace Book, which reports part of the ancient classics he read during his youth, and his correspondence. The latter has been studied especially to understand which other ancient writers he read, valued, and esteemed in his adulthood and old age. As book collector, Jefferson bought an incredible number of ancient classics, as attested by a few manuscripts of his book lists. Despite the dearth of sure evidence, it is very likely that he read the ancient works largely during his retirement. He loved reading them in the original, though he made great use of translations. The second part of this work is dedicated to investigating how Jefferson's classical education contributed to the building of his personality and ideas, as well as how he elaborated specific classical themes in his own life. The study is thus focused on Jefferson's personal human experience, specifically on his reflection on human mortality and the afterlife. These themes, indeed, are strictly linked to his reception of Epicurean and Stoic tenets, the two ancient philosophical systems which had the greatest and most profound impact on Jefferson's personality and thought.