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Ce mémoire se veut une réflexion sur les arguments transcendantaux, leur fonction, leur structure; elle se penche aussi sur le statut particulier de ces arguments et sur la place qui leur est accordée dans l'univers philosophique. La réflexion tire la majorité de ces matériaux de Kant et des interprétations qu'ont données divers penseurs contemporains, pour la plupart philosophes de tradition analytique, de l'argumentation transcendantale, et s'articule autour de cette double interrogation: 1) Existe-t-il un type particulier d'arguments permettant de fonder l'objectivité de la connaissance? 2) Quelles structures de tels arguments doivent-ils adopter?

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'effectuer une reconstruction systématique de l'ensemble de la pensée cosmologique de Kant. Le fil conducteur de cette reconstruction est l'évolution des réflexions de Kant sur le concept de totalité. Cette évolution atteste de sa contribution par rapport au problème fondamental de la cosmologie moderne : le fossé presque infranchissable entre le monde (l'horizon de l'expérience accessible à la connaissance humaine) et l'univers (la totalité effective des objets) légué par la révolution copernicienne et assumé par la science moderne. Cette thèse démontre que, par rapport à ce problème fondamental de la cosmologie moderne, la contribution de la pensée cosmologique kantienne est tout à fait significative. Dans sa période précritique, Kant élabore une théorie cosmologique fournissant une description de la totalité de l'univers conforme à la physique de Newton mais qui fait appel à une matrice conceptuelle inspirée de la tradition de la métaphysique rationaliste de type leibnizo-wolffien. Cette théorie cosmologique s'est avérée une étape importante dans le processus d'édification d'une cosmologie scientifique pendant l'époque moderne. Dans sa période critique, Kant élabore une théorie transcendantale de la connaissance qui a le mérite de déterminer les concepts de totalité circonscrivant l'horizon de notre connaissance ainsi que le statut des concepts de totalité ayant une portée cosmologique. Kant a ainsi contribué à préciser, dans une perspective transcendantale, si et dans quelle mesure la connaissance de la totalité de l'univers est possible dans l'horizon de l'expérience qui est accessible à la connaissance humaine.

Parler de la responsabilité chez Kant a quelque chose d'anachronique et de renversant: d'abord parce que le mot Verantwortlichkeit ne fait son apparition qu'à la toute fin du dix-huitième siècle, donc au soir de la vie de Kant, et qu'ensuite ce dernier a la réputation d'être un philosophe qui ignore la dimension de la "responsabilité" dans l'agir moral. Le lecteur n'est malgré tout pas aussi démuni que l'on pourrait le croire. Parce que toute définition respectable de la "responsabilité" doit nécessairement inclure en elle l'idée de Zurechnung (idée que Kant utilise et thématise), il est possible d'effectuer un commerce avec le texte de Kant en qualité d'herméneute, c'est-à-dire dans le dessein de découvrir ce qu'il serait convenu de penser sous une expression telle que la "responsabilité" chez (et non selon) Kant. Après nous être donné une hypothèse de travail, où le lien indéfectible unissant l'imputation et la responsabilité sera mis en évidence, nous serons à même de voir se profiler chez Kant deux types fort distincts d'imputation, tributaires du divorce du droit et de la morale dans la Métaphyslque des moeurs: une imputatio ludiciaria seu valida et une lmputatio diiucatoria, auxquelles devraient correspondre respectivement ce que nous baptiserons de "responsabilité juridique" et de "responsabilité morale". Nous verrons en dernier lieu que loin de simplement en attester le divorce, l'idée de la responsabilité, adéquatement comprise et portant le poids de son étymologie, permet de résorber ce que l'interprétation courante nomme chez Kant la scission de la Sittlichkeit et de la Moralität, scellant du même coup la destinée humaine.

O corpo, no decorrer da História, principalmente da Filosofia ocidental, passou por gradativo ganho de importância, até chegar ao entendimento do mesmo como corpo próprio ou o corpo que se é. Na Educação Física, da mesma forma, o passar dos tempos lhe trouxe também relevância. Nesse viés, o homem, com forte presença dos anseios sociais, age em relação ao (seu) corpo de maneira que se mostra evidente uma significativa influência do contexto social no processo de sua estruturação. Kant, em sua doutrina da educação, traz a disciplina como característica importante para a constituição do mesmo homem e, mais, descreve a importância da sociedade e do próprio homem para a estruturação de um e outro, ou seja, do homem e da sociedade, numa relação necessária para tal. Percebe-se que o cuidado, no sentido de atenção que o homem tem com seu corpo, um corpo próprio e que é no mundo, perde espaço mediante o contexto social que envolve o ser humano e refere-se mais a um corpo que está no mundo, semelhante a um objeto. Assim, a presente pesquisa tem o propósito de investigar os aportes da disciplina kantiana para o cuidado com o corpo na contemporaneidade. O estudo está situado na linha de pesquisa da História e Filosofia da Educação do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação da Universidade de Caxias do Sul. São analisados, mediante pesquisa bibliográfica, o corpo na História ocidental, a partir de quatro pensadores, a saber: Platão, Santo Agostinho, Descartes e Merleau-Ponty e também na história da Educação Física. Posteriormente, é realizada uma incursão na doutrina educacional kantiana, principalmente no que tange à disciplina, com a finalidade de estruturar as suas contribuições à forma de agir do homem com seu corpo. Por fim, observa-se a Educação Física dentro da Educação, a disciplina e o corpo e o corpo na sociedade atual, em sua condição de exposição. É realizado, então, o cruzamento das ideias kantianas com o contexto social atual, com a finalidade de apontar as contribuições do pensamento kantiano. O estudo está dividido em parte introdutória, seguida do capítulo que aborda o corpo na Filosofia ocidental e na Educação Física; o capítulo que enfoca a doutrina educacional de Kant e o capítulo que tem como cerne o corpo na sociedade atual, além das considerações finais. Constatou-se que o contexto social influencia significativamente o comportamento do homem e, muitas vezes, de forma pouco saudável. Entra em cena a autonomia objetivada por Kant, motivada pela confusão na determinação dos atos do homem. Seriam as atitudes do homem autônomas, ou impelidas pela sociedade? Nesse viés, a disciplina kantiana surge como possibilidade de reeducação da juventude, com a finalidade de afastar o homem de hábitos ruins, da comodidade e conduzi-lo a um caminho de autodeterminação e mais saudável fisicamente. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-06-04T18:53:47Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Leonardo De Ross Rosa.pdf: 524494 bytes, checksum: 950158653e3feef1123da4149fc1ddc1 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-04T18:53:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Leonardo De Ross Rosa.pdf: 524494 bytes, checksum: 950158653e3feef1123da4149fc1ddc1 (MD5) / The importance of human body has gradually increased throughout History, especially Western Philosophy, until it reached the understanding of being a body itself or being one s body. Likewise, in Physical Education, time has brought it more relevance. From that point of view, man, as a strong presence in social expectations, acts towards his Body in such a way that shows the significant influence of the social context in the process of its structuring. Kant, in his doctrine for education, treats discipline as an important characteristic in constituting that same man and moreover describes the importance that society and man himself have in structuring each other, that is, man and society in a relationship which is necessary for that. One can observe that the kind of care in the sense of paying attention to something that the man can have with his corporeal body and the body that is in the world, loses some space by means of the social context that involves human beings and refers more specifically to a body that is in the world, similarly to an object. Thus, the study described here has the purpose of investigating the principles of Kantian discipline regarding the body in contemporaneity. The study was carried out according to one of the research lines of the Graduate Program in Education at the University of Caxias do Sul, which is History and Philosophy of Education. Upon bibliographic research, the Body in Western History is analyzed according to four thinkers, which are Plato, Saint Augustine, Descartes, and Merleau-Ponty, and also according to history of Physical Education. Later, the study approaches the Kantian educational doctrine, especially in what relates to discipline, with the purpose of structuring its contributions as for the way man acts with his body. And, finally, Physical Education is considered in the field of Education, considering discipline and the body, and the body itself in society today, in its condition of being more exposed. At the end, concepts from Kant s ideas are crossed with the current, aiming to point out contributions from Kant. The study has been divided in five parts: the introduction, followed by a chapter that deals with the Body in Western Philosophy and in Physical Education; then another chapter that focuses on Kant s educational doctrine and a chapter centered on the Body in today s society, and ends with some final remarks. It was possible to observe that the social context influences man s behavior significantly and that, many times, such influence is not very healthy. The autonomy described by Kant is highlighted, motivated by the confusion in determination by man s actions. Would man s attitudes be autonomous or impelled by society? From that point of view, Kantian discipline emerges as a possibility of reeducating young people, with the purpose of keeping man away from bad habits, self-indulgence, and guiding him towards a path where self-determination and physical health are part of.

O corpo, no decorrer da História, principalmente da Filosofia ocidental, passou por gradativo ganho de importância, até chegar ao entendimento do mesmo como corpo próprio ou o corpo que se é. Na Educação Física, da mesma forma, o passar dos tempos lhe trouxe também relevância. Nesse viés, o homem, com forte presença dos anseios sociais, age em relação ao (seu) corpo de maneira que se mostra evidente uma significativa influência do contexto social no processo de sua estruturação. Kant, em sua doutrina da educação, traz a disciplina como característica importante para a constituição do mesmo homem e, mais, descreve a importância da sociedade e do próprio homem para a estruturação de um e outro, ou seja, do homem e da sociedade, numa relação necessária para tal. Percebe-se que o cuidado, no sentido de atenção que o homem tem com seu corpo, um corpo próprio e que é no mundo, perde espaço mediante o contexto social que envolve o ser humano e refere-se mais a um corpo que está no mundo, semelhante a um objeto. Assim, a presente pesquisa tem o propósito de investigar os aportes da disciplina kantiana para o cuidado com o corpo na contemporaneidade. O estudo está situado na linha de pesquisa da História e Filosofia da Educação do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação da Universidade de Caxias do Sul. São analisados, mediante pesquisa bibliográfica, o corpo na História ocidental, a partir de quatro pensadores, a saber: Platão, Santo Agostinho, Descartes e Merleau-Ponty e também na história da Educação Física. Posteriormente, é realizada uma incursão na doutrina educacional kantiana, principalmente no que tange à disciplina, com a finalidade de estruturar as suas contribuições à forma de agir do homem com seu corpo. Por fim, observa-se a Educação Física dentro da Educação, a disciplina e o corpo e o corpo na sociedade atual, em sua condição de exposição. É realizado, então, o cruzamento das ideias kantianas com o contexto social atual, com a finalidade de apontar as contribuições do pensamento kantiano. O estudo está dividido em parte introdutória, seguida do capítulo que aborda o corpo na Filosofia ocidental e na Educação Física; o capítulo que enfoca a doutrina educacional de Kant e o capítulo que tem como cerne o corpo na sociedade atual, além das considerações finais. Constatou-se que o contexto social influencia significativamente o comportamento do homem e, muitas vezes, de forma pouco saudável. Entra em cena a autonomia objetivada por Kant, motivada pela confusão na determinação dos atos do homem. Seriam as atitudes do homem autônomas, ou impelidas pela sociedade? Nesse viés, a disciplina kantiana surge como possibilidade de reeducação da juventude, com a finalidade de afastar o homem de hábitos ruins, da comodidade e conduzi-lo a um caminho de autodeterminação e mais saudável fisicamente. / The importance of human body has gradually increased throughout History, especially Western Philosophy, until it reached the understanding of being a body itself or being one s body. Likewise, in Physical Education, time has brought it more relevance. From that point of view, man, as a strong presence in social expectations, acts towards his Body in such a way that shows the significant influence of the social context in the process of its structuring. Kant, in his doctrine for education, treats discipline as an important characteristic in constituting that same man and moreover describes the importance that society and man himself have in structuring each other, that is, man and society in a relationship which is necessary for that. One can observe that the kind of care in the sense of paying attention to something that the man can have with his corporeal body and the body that is in the world, loses some space by means of the social context that involves human beings and refers more specifically to a body that is in the world, similarly to an object. Thus, the study described here has the purpose of investigating the principles of Kantian discipline regarding the body in contemporaneity. The study was carried out according to one of the research lines of the Graduate Program in Education at the University of Caxias do Sul, which is History and Philosophy of Education. Upon bibliographic research, the Body in Western History is analyzed according to four thinkers, which are Plato, Saint Augustine, Descartes, and Merleau-Ponty, and also according to history of Physical Education. Later, the study approaches the Kantian educational doctrine, especially in what relates to discipline, with the purpose of structuring its contributions as for the way man acts with his body. And, finally, Physical Education is considered in the field of Education, considering discipline and the body, and the body itself in society today, in its condition of being more exposed. At the end, concepts from Kant s ideas are crossed with the current, aiming to point out contributions from Kant. The study has been divided in five parts: the introduction, followed by a chapter that deals with the Body in Western Philosophy and in Physical Education; then another chapter that focuses on Kant s educational doctrine and a chapter centered on the Body in today s society, and ends with some final remarks. It was possible to observe that the social context influences man s behavior significantly and that, many times, such influence is not very healthy. The autonomy described by Kant is highlighted, motivated by the confusion in determination by man s actions. Would man s attitudes be autonomous or impelled by society? From that point of view, Kantian discipline emerges as a possibility of reeducating young people, with the purpose of keeping man away from bad habits, self-indulgence, and guiding him towards a path where self-determination and physical health are part of.

La question du sujet s'est développée dans la pensée occidentale en suivant deux axes. Un premier axe montre un sujet de la volonté qu'on a retrouvé avec une lecture de Kant, dont la caractéristique retenue est l'autonomie de son action. Un second montre un sujet plus personnel, marqué d'une trace qui le détermine et que la psychanalyse à la suite de Freud et de Lacan a développé comme le sujet de l'inconscient. Sont ici exposées ces deux thèses à la suite desquelles une discussion est engagée sur les conséquences éthiques de chacune. Une synthèse est proposée autour de la notion de sujet historique suggérée par le sociologue Alain Touraine et permet de discuter les enjeux rencontrés par le sujet éthique dans certaines situations contemporaines de la vie quotidienne.

Thesis (DPhil (Philosophy))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study involves a critically evaluation of evidence-based patient choice as partnership model in clinical decision making. It pays attention to the emergence of the concept of autonomy in modern moral philosophy and in particular to the pivotal contributions of Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill in this regard. Against this background, it elaborates on the ethical principle of respect for autonomy, informed consent as paradigm for patient autonomy in clinical decision making, the conflicts that arise between the ethical concepts of autonomy and beneficence, the dominance of paternalism in clinical decision making, the challenges posed to the dominance of paternalism, the resulting emergence of the concept of partnership in clinical decision making and evidence-based patient choice as partnership model in clinical decision making. Moreover, it provides an exposition of the context, nature and practice of evidence-based patient choice and of the four key decision making skills required from health care professionals to involve patients in clinical decision making, namely shared decision making, risk communication, decision analysis, and the use of decision aids. Against this background, it critically evaluates the effectiveness of evidence-based patient choice as partnership model in clinical decision making by judging it in terms of the ethical concept of patient autonomy as reflected in the informed consent elements of competence, disclosure, understanding and voluntariness and indicates that none of the key skills of evidence-based patient choice can be regarded as completely adequate in honouring the principle of respect for autonomy in clinical decision making and that consequently each of these four key skills leave evidence-based patient choice with a challenge that needs to be addressed from another angle in order to establish and maintain the ethical principle of respect for autonomy. In response to these challenges, the study makes three recommendations for the transformation of evidence-based patient choice to a therapeutic alliance health care, namely to review and further develop the philosophical foundations of evidence-based patient choice, to consider the continental philosophical perspectives of Edmund Husserl, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Jürgen Habermas on the evidence-based patient choice challenges of the separate worlds of doctor and patient, the constitution of meaning in illness and the dangers of abstractions and informational manipulation in health care and to transform the practice of evidence-based patient choice to a therapeutic alliance in health care by individualising the provision of information by embedding it in the human processes of sense making, knowledge creation and decision making through which information is transformed into insight, knowledge and action. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie behels 'n kritiese evaluering van evidence-based patient choice as vennootskapsmodel in kliniese besluitneming. Dit verwys na die opkoms van moderne morele filosofie en in die besonder na die deurslaggewende bydraes van Immanuel Kant en John Stuart Mill in hierdie verband. Teen hierdie agtergrond bespreek dit die etiese beginsel van respek vir outonomie, ingeligte toestemming as paradigma vir pasiënt outonomie in kliniese bsluitneming, die moontlike konflikte tussen die etiese konsepte van outonomie en weldadigheid, die dominansie van paternalisme in kliniese besluitneming en die uitdagings wat dit ontlok het, die gevolglike ontstaan van die konsep van vennootskappe in kliniese besluitneming, asook evidence-based patient choice as vennootskapsmodel in kliniese besluitneming. Voorts verskaf die studie 'n uiteensetting van die konteks, wese en praktyk van evidence-based patient choice, asook van die vier sleutelvaardighede wat van medici vereis word ten einde pasiënte in kliniese besluitneming te betrek, naamlik gedeelde besluitneming, die kommunikasie van risikos, die analise van besluitneming en die gebruik van besluitnemingshulpmiddels. Teen hierdie agtergrond onderneem die studie 'n kritiese evaluering van die effektiwiteit van evidence-based patient choice deur dit te meet aan die ingeligte toestemming elemente van kompetensie, blootlegging, verstaan en vrywilligheid en toon aan dat geeneen van hierdie sleutelvaardighede as volledig toereikend in die nastreef van die beginsel van respek vir outonomie in kliniese besluitneming beskou kan word nie en evidence-based patient choice daarom met uitdagings laat wat vanuit 'n ander hoek bearbei moet word ten einde die beginsel in die praktyk te vestig en te onderhou. In reaksie hierop maak die studie drie aanbevelings met die oog op die transformering van evidence-based patient choice na 'n terapeutiese alliansie in gesondheidsorg, naamlik om die filosofiese grondslae van evidence-based patient choice in oënskou te neem en verder te ontwikkel, om oorweging te skenk aan die kontinentaal filosofiese perspektiewe van Edmund Husserl, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty en Jürgen Habermas met betrekking tot die evidence-based patient choice uitdagings van die verskillende wêrelde van dokter en pasiënt, die konstituering van betekenis in siekte en die gevare verbonde aan die abstrahering en manipulering van inligting in gesondheidsorg en om op grond hiervan die praktyk van evidence-based patient choice te transformer. Dit sal gedoen word deur die verskaffing van inligting aan pasiënte te individualiseer deur dit in te bed in the menslike prosesse van sinmaking, kennis generering en besluitneming waardeur inligting getransformeer word tot insig, kennis en aksie.

Kant believed that the moral law is a law that the rational will legislates. This thesis examines this claim and its broader implications for Kant’s moral theory. Many are drawn to Kantian ethics because of its emphasis on the dignity and legislative authority of the rational being. The attractiveness of this emphasis on the special standing and capacities of the self grounds a recent tendency to interpret Kantian autonomy as a doctrine according to which individual agents create binding moral norms. Where this line is taken, however, its advocates face deep questions concerning the compatibility of autonomy and the conception of moral requirement to which Kant is also certainly committed – one which conceives of the moral law as a strictly universal and necessary imperative. This thesis has two main aims. In the first half, I offer an interpretation of Kantian autonomy that both accommodates the universality and necessity of moral constraint and takes seriously the notion that the rational will is a legislator of moral law. As a means of developing and securing my preferred view, I argue that recent popular interpretations of Kantian autonomy fail to resolve the tensions that seem at first glance to plague the concept of self-legislation, where what is at stake is the legislation of a categorical imperative. In the second half of this thesis, I examine the connections between my preferred interpretation of self-legislation and Kant’s dichotomisation of reason and our sensuous nature. I argue that some of the more harsh and seemingly unreasonable aspects of Kant’s moral philosophy can be defended by bringing to light the ways in which they are connected to his commitment both to the autonomy of the will and to developing a genuinely normative ethics.