Den senaste tidens klimatutveckling har påverkat situationen i Arktis. För 10 år sedan hade de arktiska länderna inga uttalade arktiska strategier men klimatutvecklingen har skapat ett behov av dessa strategier. Tidigare otillgängliga områden blir nu tillgängliga vilket enligt vissa bedömare skapar en kapplöpning om Arktis och dess resurser. I takt med en allt mer ansträngd ekonomi för de nordiska länderna ökar viljan att finna militära samarbeten för att få ner kostnader och hitta synergieffekter. Syftet med studien är att belysa vilka olika nationella överväganden och intressen som kan påverka Sverige, Norge och Danmarks syn på Arktis samt hur detta kan påverka ett marint samarbete i området. Studien gör en kvalitativ textanalys av officiella dokument från Sverige, Norge och Danmark för att redogöra för likheter och skillnader i ländernas syn på Arktis. Mål/intresse, säkerhetshot, medel och marinförmåga analyseras varefter tre scenarion åskådliggör marina samarbetsområden i Arktis. Resultatet visar att det till stor del råder strategisk samsyn dock skiljer sig dansk syn på säkerhetshot i Arktis från svensk och norsk syn. Det finns flertalet potentiella marina samarbetsområden till exempel sjöövervakning, miljö- och sjöräddning.

The Arctic region is rich in natural resources such as oil, gas, minerals and fish. Climate change causes the Arctic ice melt, making resource extraction possible as well as opening up new transport routes through the Northwest Passage and the Northeast Passage. This has led to competition and cross-border strife among the Arctic States. The two largest states in the Arctic are Russia and Canada, which are also members of the Arctic Council. Russia and Canada are at the moment involved in several disputes regarding the Arctic territory where the ownership of the North Pole is one example. This study aims to explain the Russian and Canadian actions in the Arctic in a geopolitical aspect and to what extent it is consistent with the objectives of the Arctic Council’s Kiruna Declaration. The presence of security aspects like economic, military and environmental security is examined through a text analysis where the Arctic policies and the National security policies are compared, where the results then are compared with the objectives in the Kiruna Declaration to find similarities and differences. The result shows that the economic security is the most important aspect for both Russia and Canada, while the environmental security is the most important in the Kiruna declaration of the Arctic council. The conclusion is that the significant economic and strategic potential of the Arctic guides Russia’s and Canada’s behaviour and that the financial benefits outweigh the environmental risks that are associated with the development of the area.

Aus Beobachtungsdaten der Satellitenmission GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) können Variationen des Erdschwerefeldes auf großen räumlichen Skalen mit hoher Genauigkeit abgeleitet werden. Die Variationen auf zeitlichen Skalen von mehreren Tagen bis Wochen und räumlichen Skalen von wenigen hundert Kilometern sind insbesondere auf Änderungen der kontinentalen Wassermassen zurückzuführen. Die vorliegende Promotionsarbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Bestimmung hydrologischer Massenvariationen aus GRACE-Daten am Beispiel der vier größten sibirischen Flusseinzugsgebiete Ob, Jenissei, Lena und Kolyma. Darauf aufbauend sollen in Kombination mit atmosphärischen Daten der NCEP-Reanalyse Süßwassereinträge in den Arktischen Ozean abgeleitet werden. Die Süßwassereinträge beeinflussen nachhaltig den Salzgehalt und damit das ozeanographische Regime des Arktischen Ozeans, welcher wiederum einen Einfluss auf die globale thermohaline Zirkulation hat. Da die großen Strömungen des Weltozeans einen grundlegenden Faktor des globalen Klimageschehens darstellen, sind die Änderungen des Süßwassereintrages ein wichtiger Aspekt hinsichtlich prognostizierter Klimatrends. Der Abfluss kann an ausgewählten Messpunkten mit einer hohen zeitlichen Auflösung beobachtet werden. Die Datenreihen weisen jedoch immer wieder Lücken auf und die bodengebundenen Messungen sind oft schwierig und kostenintensiv. Messmethoden, die unabhängig vom Zugang ins Messgebiet sind, können einen großen Fortschritt bei der Beobachtung sich ändernder Massen und Süßwasserflüsse leisten und damit einen Beitrag für ein besseres Verständnis gekoppelter komplexer Prozesse der Arktis liefern. Da die Fehlerstruktur der GRACE-Daten komplex und bis heute nicht vollständig verstanden ist, erfolgt zunächst eine Untersuchung des GRACE-Fehlerhaushaltes. Zudem werden die Fehlereffekte aufgrund des begrenzten räumlichen Spektrums und damit einhergehender Leck-Effekte auf Ebene von Gebietsmittelwerten analysiert und Lösungsvorschläge diskutiert. Dabei sind folgende Aspekte von Bedeutung: Erweiterung der GRACE-Datenreihe um geeigente Terme ersten Grades und Abschätzung von Leck-Effekten, verursacht durch das begrenzte Spektrum der Kugelfunktionsentwicklung. Leck-Effekte aufgrund ozeanischer Signalanteile sind bzgl. der Einzugsgebiete sibirischer Flusssysteme klein (< 1%), wohingegen Leck-Effekte aufgrund kontinentaler Signalanteile je nach Gebietsgröße relative Fehler von 8-17% nach sich ziehen. Die größten Fehlereffekte resultieren jedoch aus den Koeffizienten hoher Grade. Die Filterung der GRACE-Daten ermöglicht die Glättung fehlerbehafterer Signalanteile. Neben den in der Literatur gängigen Filtern wurde im Rahmen der Arbeit ein Kombinationsfilter entwickelt, welches auf Basis von räumlichen Vorinformationen aus Hydrologiemodellen signifikante Signalstrukturen in den GRACE-Datenreihen detektiert. Somit muss lediglich ein Restsignal mittels Filterung gedämpft werden. Mit dem Kombinationsfilter können sowohl feinere Signalstrukturen als auch größere Signalamplituden auf Land erhalten werden. Im Vergleich zu reinen Filteranwendungen werden hier Gesamtsignalstärke, Amplitude und Phase des jährlichen Signals gut repräsentiert. Darauf aufbauend lassen sich, in Kombination mit atmosphärischen Daten, Abflüsse für die sibirischen Flusssysteme aus GRACE-Wasserspeichervariationen ableiten. Die Validierung der berechneten Abflüsse anhand beobachteter Abflüsse zeigt eine hohe Übereinstimmung von bis zu 83%. Eine Gegenüberstellung des berechneten Abflusses der Lena mit Wasserstandsmessungen im Mündungsbereich zeigt zudem einen Zusammenhang zwischen dem maximalen Abfluss im Frühjahr und einer Zunahme des Wasserstandes in der Laptewsee. / The satellite mission GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) observes the earth's gravity field on temporal scales of a few days to several weeks and spatial scales of a few hundred kilometers with high accuracy. A large part of the variations of the gravity field originate from hydrological mass changes on the continents. The dissertation discusses the determination of hydrological mass variations from GRACE for the Siberian water systems of the rivers Ob, Yenisey, Lena and Kolyma. The mass variations from GRACE data are combined with atmospheric data of the NCEP reanalysis to calculate the freshwater fluxes in the Arctic Ocean. The freshwater fluxes strongly influences the salinity and the oceanographic regime of the Arctic Ocean. In turn, the Arctic Ocean controls the global thermohaline circulation which is very important for the global climate. Because these large currents of the ocean influence the global climate, the changes of the freshwater fluxes in the Arctic Ocean are an important factor for the global climate change. The runoff can be measured pointwise with high temporal resolution, but measurements in the high latitudes are difficulty and expensive. Independent methods to measure the mass changes in the Arctic can help to determine the freshwater fluxes on large spatial scales, and contribute to understand the coupled and complex processes of the Arctic. Until present, the complex error structure of the GRACE data are not fully understand. The dissertation examines the errors and analysizes the leakage caused by the limited spectrum of the Stokes coefficients. A proposal for a solution will be discussed. The following steps are important: Expanding the GRACE data with adequate terms of degree one; Valuation of leakage errors because of the limited spectrum. Leakage due to oceanographic signals of the Arctic Ocean are small (< 1%). Leakage errors due to signals on land produces relative errors of basin averages of 8-17%. Beyond that, the largest errors are caused by the coefficients of higher degree. Filtering is an effective method to damp the error signals. In addition to the common filters described in the literature, a filter method, called composite filter, was created. Significant structures from hydrological models can be deteceted in the GRACE data without any other filtering. Only the residual signals should be filtered by using one of the common filters. In comparison to the common filters, the composite filter represents the signal strength, the signal structures, the amplitude and the phase of the saisonal signal on the continents much better. Combining hydrological mass variations from GRACE data with atmospheric data (for example the NCEP reanalysis) the runoff of the four Siberian river systems can be calculated. The validation of the calculated runoff using observations leads to a good agreement (83% for Yenisey and Lena). Furthermore, it is possible to combine the runoff of a river system with measurements of water level and salinity in the Arctic Ocean. The high runoff of the Lena river system in spring is visible in the water level changes in the Laptev sea.

The Arctic is experiencing an increased drawback of the polar ice due to warmer temperatures across the earth, which affects the Arctic in particular. The decreasing area in which the ice stays for the whole year has sparked new interest and focus on the once peaceful Arctic. An increased presence and buildup of military forces is occurring due to new sea lines of communications opening and enormous oil, gas and mineral deposits becoming available. The increased attention of the area has prompted Sweden, Norway and Finland to sign a trilateral agreement of military cooperation in the Arctic. By examining and comparing Sweden and Norway’s military strategy for this region, this paper will shed light on each country’s military strategy for the Arctic, where Sweden especially has been over-looked in the past. The research compares Sweden and Norway’s strategy and aims to understand and explain the differences and similarities with the small state theory. The result of the essay indicates that the strategic military goal of each country is similar, however, it is attained by different methods and means. The result also conclude that Sweden falls behind in describing their military strategy for the Arctic. The differences and similarities of the strategies can furthermore be explained widely with the theory.

Primär emittierte marine Aerosolpartikel haben einen wichtigen Einfluss auf den Strahlungshaushalt der Erde, indem sie unter anderem als Kondensations (CCN)- oder Eiskeime (INP) für die Bildung von Wolken wirken. In den ozeanisch geprägten Polarregionen dominieren diese marinen Aerosolpartikel in der Luft und können dort eine bedeutende bzw. sich noch verändernde Rolle im Rahmen des Klimawandels einnehmen. Sie entspringen vordergründig aus dem ozeanische Oberflächenwasser und dem hauchdünnen Oberflächenfilm, dem sogenannte sea surface microlayer (SML), und werden durch das Platzen von durch Wind eingetragene Luftblasen freigesetzt. Primär emittierte marine Aerosolpartikel bestehen aus anorganischem Meersalz und organischen Kohlenstoffverbindungen, deren relative Anteile sich stark in Abhängigkeit vom Aerosoldurchmessers unterscheiden. In diesem Zusammenhang stellen die marinen Kohlenhydrate eine wichtige organische Stoffgruppe dar, deren ozeanische Quellen, Übergang vom Ozean in die Atmosphäre, Veränderungen in der Atmosphäre als auch deren Beitrag bei der Kondensation und Eiskeimbildung noch nicht ausreichend verstanden sind. Dieser begrenzte Kenntnisstand ist unter anderem auf das mangelnde Vorhandensein analytischer Methoden zurückzuführen, die eine zuverlässige Bestimmung von Kohlenhydraten in den stark salzhaltigen Matrices bei sehr niedrigen Massekonzentrationen mit hohen Wiederfindungsraten gewährleisten. Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit wurde durch Kombination der Hochleistungs-Anionenaustauschchromatographie mit gepulster amperometrischer Detektion (HPAEC-PAD) und einer Entsalzung durch Elektrodialyse eine analytische Methode entwickelt, welche die Bestimmung eines breiten Spektrums an gelösten Kohlenhydraten in freier (als Monosaccharide) und gebundener (als Oligo- oder Polysaccharide) Form in Meerwasser und anderen salzhaltigen Matrices ermöglicht. Mithilfe dieser neuen Methode wurde ein biogeochemischer Zusammenhang zwischen dem Vorkommen von freier Glucose und der eiskeimbildenden Aktivität im arktischen SML beobachtet. Außerdem wurde im meereisfreien Teil des Südlichen Ozeans der primäre Transfer von Kohlenhydraten vom Ozean über den SML in die Atmosphäre und deren sekundäre atmosphärische Veränderungen erforscht. Die umfangreichen Untersuchungen mariner Kohlenhydrate in polarem Meerwasser und Aerosolpartikeln zeigen Indizien einer bisher noch unterschätzten atmosphärischen Bedeutung mikrobiologischer Prozesse auf.:1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The Polar Oceans ................................................................................................................................. 3 1.1.1 Geographical Definitions and Characteristics.......................................................................... 3 1.1.2 Role in Earth’s Climate System ................................................................................................ 5 1.1.3 Changing Climate and Consequences ...................................................................................... 6 1.2 Sea Spray Aerosol over the Polar Oceans ........................................................................................... 9 1.2.1 Production Mechanisms of Sea Spray Aerosol ........................................................................ 9 1.2.2 Chemo-Selective Sea-Air Transfer and Atmospheric Aging ................................................... 10 1.2.3 Impact on Earth’s Radiation Budget ...................................................................................... 12 1.3 The Surface of the Polar Oceans ....................................................................................................... 15 1.3.1 The Sea Surface Microlayer ................................................................................................... 15 1.3.2 Selective Enrichment of Chemical Compounds ..................................................................... 15 1.3.3 Atmospheric Relevance for Atmospheric Chemistry and Cloud Microphysics ..................... 24 1.4 Marine Carbohydrates....................................................................................................................... 26 1.4.1 Chemical Structures ............................................................................................................... 26 1.4.2 Microbial Role ........................................................................................................................ 28 1.4.3 Marine Carbohydrates in the Atmosphere ............................................................................ 30 1.4.4 Chemical Analysis and Sea Salt Interference ......................................................................... 31 2. Results and Discussions ........................................................................................................................... 35 2.1 First Publication ................................................................................................................................. 35 2.1.1 Glucose as a Potential Chemical Marker for Ice Nucleating Activity in Arctic Seawater and Melt Pond Samples ......................................................................................................................... 35 2.1.2 Supporting Information ......................................................................................................... 47 2.2 Second Publication ............................................................................................................................ 55 A protocol for quantifying mono-and polysaccharides in seawater and related saline matrices by electro-dialysis (ED) – combined with HPAEC-PAD ........................................................................ 55 2.3 Third Publication ............................................................................................................................... 70 2.3.1 Aerosol Marine Primary Carbohydrates and Atmospheric Transformation in the Western Antarctic Peninsula ......................................................................................................................... 70 2.3.2 Supporting Information ......................................................................................................... 88 3. Atmospheric Implications ........................................................................................................................ 95 4. Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 98 5. References ............................................................................................................................................. 101 List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. 121 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. 123 List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. 124 Curriculum Vitae ........................................................................................................................................ 125 / Primary marine aerosol particles impact Earth’s radiation budget by acting, among other things, as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) or ice nucleating particles (INP) for the formation of clouds. Over the polar oceans, primary marine aerosol emissions dominate the atmospheric particles and can play a significant and changing role there in the context of climate change. These particles are primarily emitted from the oceanic surface water and a thin surface film, the so-called sea surface microlayer (SML), by the bursting of air bubbles entrained by the wind. They consist of inorganic sea salt and organic matter (OM), whose relative proportions differ greatly depending on the aerosol diameter. In this context, the marine carbohydrates represent an important group of OM, whose oceanic sources, their transition from the sea to the atmosphere, atmospheric aging and contribution to the condensation of water droplets and ice nucleation are not well understood. This limited level of knowledge is due, among other things, to the lack of analytical methods that enable a reliable determination of carbohydrates at very low mass concentrations with high recovery rates in the salty matrices. Within the framework of this PhD thesis, an analytical method was developed by combining high-performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD) and a prior desalination by electro-dialysis (ED), which enables the determination of a wide range of dissolved carbohydrates in their free (as monosaccharides) and combined (as oligo- or polysaccharides) forms in seawater and other saline matrices. With this new method, a biogeochemical connection between the presence of free glucose and the ice nucleating activity in the Arctic SML could be observed. In addition, the primary transfer of carbohydrates from the ocean via the SML into the atmosphere and subsequent secondary atmospheric transformations were investigated in the sea ice-free part of the Southern Ocean. Consequently, the extensive investigations of marine carbohydrates in seawater and aerosol particles indicate an atmospheric importance of microbiological processes that has been underestimated until now.:1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The Polar Oceans ................................................................................................................................. 3 1.1.1 Geographical Definitions and Characteristics.......................................................................... 3 1.1.2 Role in Earth’s Climate System ................................................................................................ 5 1.1.3 Changing Climate and Consequences ...................................................................................... 6 1.2 Sea Spray Aerosol over the Polar Oceans ........................................................................................... 9 1.2.1 Production Mechanisms of Sea Spray Aerosol ........................................................................ 9 1.2.2 Chemo-Selective Sea-Air Transfer and Atmospheric Aging ................................................... 10 1.2.3 Impact on Earth’s Radiation Budget ...................................................................................... 12 1.3 The Surface of the Polar Oceans ....................................................................................................... 15 1.3.1 The Sea Surface Microlayer ................................................................................................... 15 1.3.2 Selective Enrichment of Chemical Compounds ..................................................................... 15 1.3.3 Atmospheric Relevance for Atmospheric Chemistry and Cloud Microphysics ..................... 24 1.4 Marine Carbohydrates....................................................................................................................... 26 1.4.1 Chemical Structures ............................................................................................................... 26 1.4.2 Microbial Role ........................................................................................................................ 28 1.4.3 Marine Carbohydrates in the Atmosphere ............................................................................ 30 1.4.4 Chemical Analysis and Sea Salt Interference ......................................................................... 31 2. Results and Discussions ........................................................................................................................... 35 2.1 First Publication ................................................................................................................................. 35 2.1.1 Glucose as a Potential Chemical Marker for Ice Nucleating Activity in Arctic Seawater and Melt Pond Samples ......................................................................................................................... 35 2.1.2 Supporting Information ......................................................................................................... 47 2.2 Second Publication ............................................................................................................................ 55 A protocol for quantifying mono-and polysaccharides in seawater and related saline matrices by electro-dialysis (ED) – combined with HPAEC-PAD ........................................................................ 55 2.3 Third Publication ............................................................................................................................... 70 2.3.1 Aerosol Marine Primary Carbohydrates and Atmospheric Transformation in the Western Antarctic Peninsula ......................................................................................................................... 70 2.3.2 Supporting Information ......................................................................................................... 88 3. Atmospheric Implications ........................................................................................................................ 95 4. Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 98 5. References ............................................................................................................................................. 101 List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. 121 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. 123 List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. 124 Curriculum Vitae ........................................................................................................................................ 125

The tethered balloon system BELUGA (BalloonbornE moduLar Utility for profilinG the lower Atmosphere) was operated in spring 2022 at the AWIPEV research station (Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard). In-situ profiles of thermodynamic parameters, thermalinfrared radiation, aerosol particle concentrations, and turbulence, were measured and analyzed. Additionally, samples of ice-nucleating particles were collected at various heights. In combination with previous BELUGA datasets, measurements from this campaign provide a solid base for studying the vertical profiles of the radiative energy budget and heating rates in different atmospheric states in the Arctic lower troposphere. Here, example thermal-infrared radiation profiles are presented for a period of persisting cloudless conditions related to a series of marine cold air outbreaks in late March/early April. Measurements in clouds are analyzed for a developing cloud observed on 6 May and display the impact of cloudiness on radiation profiles. / Das Fesselballonsystem BELUGA (BalloonbornE moduLar Utility for profilinG the lowerAtmosphere) wurde im Frühjahr 2022 an der Forschungsstation AWIPEVStation (Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard) eingesetzt. In-situ-Profile von thermodynamischen Parametern, terrestrische Strahlung, Aerosolpartikelkonzentrationen und Turbulenz wurden gemessen und ausgewertet. Zusätzlich wurden in verschiedenen Höhen Proben von eiskeimbildenden Partikeln gesammelt. In Kombination mit früheren BELUGA Messungen zu anderen Jahreszeiten und an anderen arktischen Messstandorten bieten die Messungen in Ny-Ålesund eine Grundlage fürweitereUntersuchungen des Strahlungsenergiehaushalts und des Einflusses vonWolken auf atmosphärische Heizraten. Profile der Strahlungsbilanz werden für eine anhaltende Kälteperiode zwischen Ende März bis Anfang April 2022 vorgestellt. Über diesen Zeitraum herrschten vor allem wolkenlose Bedingungen. Weitere Beobachtungen unter einer sich entwickelnden Wolkendecke am 6. Mai 2022 zeigen den Einfluss der Bewölkung auf die Strahlungsprofile.

The atmospheric boundary layer in the Arctic is essential for the understanding of climate change and improving regional weather prediction. The aim of this study is to investigate to which degree wind speed profiles retrieved in the Arctic agree with well known wind profile concepts and understand which local impact factors influence the wind speed profile. As part of the Nansen Legacy project, scientists from the University Centre in Svalbard and the University of Bergen installed two wind lidars onboard the research vessel “Kronprins Haakon” during the “Winter Process Cruise” in February 2021. Wind speed profiles were collected over a period of two weeks. They were manually classified into three categories based on their shape. The ideally shaped profiles were fitted against the wind profile power law to identify the exponent, α, for use in the Arctic marine boundary layer. α was found to be 4-5 times smaller than the conventionally applied α = 1/7 for profiles retrieved over open water, which was associated with unstable atmospheric conditions. Additionally, α was found to be considerably larger than 1/7 when sea ice was present, which was associated with stable conditions. A dependency on wind speed was also found. These results underline the importance of adjusting the exponent in order to ac- curately model the wind speed in the Arctic marine boundary layer. The results might be important for optimizing potential wind energy production, which is of great interest with the increasing human activ- ity in the Arctic. Reversed profiles (wind speed maxima closest to the surface) were mainly measured over open ocean and during low wind speeds and were speculated to be related to swell conditions. Pro- files containing a maxima in low levels were primarily measured during stable atmospheric conditions when sea ice was present. Future research in Arctic conditions would benefit from extending wind speed measurements to even lower levels and including stability measurements for an even deeper analysis.

Den här flerfallstudien har som syfte att undersöka hur den arktiska ursprungsbefolkningen ges regionalt inflytande i intressefrågor som direkt eller indirekt påverkar deras traditionella livsuppehälle i de arktiska områden som tillhör Ryssland, USA, Kanada, Danmark (Grönland) och Norge. Studien tillämpar metoden Ethnographic Content Analysis och utgår från teorierna liberalism och realism inom internationella relationer för att analysera ländernas arktiska policys och institutionella processer som berör deras arktiska ursprungsbefolkning. Vikten av inflytande i staternas institutionella processer är vital för ursprungsfolkens fortsatta överlevnad i Arktis, och eftersom Arktis beräknas bli en ny global region för utveckling så är det viktigt att identifiera farorna som dåliga strategier, policys, rättsliga ramverk och samarbeten skulle kunna skapa i relation till välbefinnandet hos regionens ursprungsbefolkning. Resultatet av studien visar på att Arktis som område är väldigt viktig ur ett geostrategiskt och ekonomiskt perspektiv för länderna, och resulterar i att ursprungsbefolkningens inflytande blir begränsat eller försvårat av staten i vissa sakfrågor som berör båda parter. Flertalet länder erkänner den arktiska ursprungsbefolkningens mänskliga rättigheter, men hur rättigheterna implementeras och vilken utsträckning ursprungsbefolkningen får medverka i implementeringen skiljer sig åt mellan staterna. Skillnaden ligger framförallt i hur maktstrukturen är fördelad mellan staten och ursprungsbefolkningen, där vissa länder uppvisar en stark centralmakt medan andra ger större utrymme för självbestämmande och självstyre. Generellt har staterna därför en betydande roll för beslutstagande influerat av både realistiska och liberalistiska värderingar. I den mån som staterna agerar efter liberalistiska värderingar så arbetar dem aktivt mot att samarbeta med ursprungsbefolkningen och bekräfta deras rätt till inflytande för att generera en representativ bild av samhället. Å andra sidan visar nationalstatens centrala roll i beslutsprocesser på att realistiska värderingar fortfarande väger tungt i samhällsstrukturen samt utformandet av nationella intressen och policys. / This multiple case study has the purpose of examining how the Arctic indigenous population is given regional influence in issues that directly or indirectly are affecting their traditional livelihoods in the Arctic areas belonging to Russia, the United States, Canada, Denmark (Greenland) and Norway. The study applies the method of Ethnographic Content Analysis and uses the international relation theories of liberalism and realism to analyze the nations’ Arctic policies and institutional processes that affects their Arctic indigenous population. The matter of influence within the states institutional processes is of vital significance for the continued survival of the Arctic indigenous population, and since the Arctic is believed to become a new global area of development, it is important to identify the dangers that bad strategies, policies, legal framework and cooperation could create in relation to the well-being of the Arctic indigenous people. The result of the study show that the Arctic is important both as a geostrategic and an economic perspective for the countries, which limits or obstruct the influence given to the indigenous peoples in issues affecting both parties. The majority of the countries recognize the Arctic indigenous peoples’ human rights, but the countries differ in both how the rights are implemented and to what extent the indigenous population are part of the implementation. The difference lies especially in how power is distributed between the state and the indigenous people, where some countries showcase a strong centralized power within the government and other states devote a greater space for self-determination and autonomy. Generally, the states’ role for decision-making is therefore of great importance, influenced by both realistic and liberal values. When acting upon liberal values, the states actively work towards cooperation with the indigenous people and recognizing the indigenous people’s right to influence, to generate a representative depiction of the society. However, the nation state’s central role in decision-making display that realistic values still are paramount in the structure of society and in the formation of national interests and policies.

Abstract In this Ph.D. thesis sediment cores from the central Arctic Ocean, southwestern Barents Sea and sediment exposures from the Kola Peninsula were investigated in order to reveal interactions between the late middle Pleistocene and late Pleistocene Arctic ice sheets, between Marine Isotope Stages 6 and 1 (MIS 6 and MIS 1). One of the main objectives of this work is to establish provenance areas for the sediments studied in the central Arctic, the southwestern (SW) Barents Sea and the Kola Peninsula, their transport mechanisms and through that their relationship to glaciations in the Arctic and to development in the Kola Peninsula during the late middle and late Pleistocene. Mineralogical and geochemical data from the core 96/12-1pc on the Lomonosov Ridge, central Arctic Ocean was studied to evaluate ice transport from circum-Arctic ice sheets and variability in sediment drainage systems associated with their decay. SW Barents Sea sediments contain important information on Late Glacial and Holocene sediment provenance characteristics in relation to ice flow patterns and ice rafting from different regional sectors. The studied SW Barents Sea sediment cores show that sediments were most likely derived from a combination of far-field Fennoscandian sources, local subcropping Mesozoic strata below the seafloor and sea ice transport. The investigation carried out on the Kola Peninsula indicates that the Eemian (MIS 5e) marine environment in the White Sea Basin and onshore coastal areas gradually changed into a glaciolacustrine environment during MIS 5d to MIS 5a. Subsequently, the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) covered the Kola Peninsula, most probably during MIS 4. The final deglaciation of the SIS on the Kola Peninsula took place, however, during the late Weichselian (MIS 2) between 16–12 ka. / Tiivistelmä Tässä väitöstutkimuksessa tutkittiin sedimenttikairanäytteitä keskeiseltä Jäämereltä ja Lounais-Barentsinmereltä sekä tarkasteltiin sedimenttiseurantoja Kuolan niemimaalla tarkoituksena selvittää myöhäisen keskipleistoseeni- ja myöhäispleistoseeniajan Arktisten jääkenttien keskinäiset vuorovaikutukset erityisesti merellisten isotooppivaiheiden 6 ja 1 (MIS 6 ja MIS 1) välillä. Tämän työn yhtenä päätavoitteena on määritellä sedimenttien lähdealueet keskeisellä Arktiksella, lounaisella Barentsinmerellä ja Kuolan niemimaalla, sedimenttien kuljetusmekanismit ja näiden perusteella riippuvuudet Arktisiin jäätiköihin ja Kuolan niemimaalla tapahtuneeseen myöhäiskeski- ja myöhäispleistoseenin kehitykseen. Mineraloginen ja geokemiallinen tieto Lomonosovin harjanteen kairauksesta 96/12-1pc, keskeisellä Jäämerellä on perusta arvioitaessa jääkuljetusmekanismeja ympäröiviltä sirkum-Arktisilta jäätiköiltä ja arvioitaessa valuma-alueiden osuutta suhteessa näiden jäätiköiden häviämiseen. Lounaisen Barentsinmeren sedimentit sisältävät tärkeätä tietoja viimeisen jäätiköitymisen loppuvaiheen ja holoseeni-ajan sedimenttien lähdealueista ja suhteista jäävirtauksiin ja jääkuljetukseen eri aluesektoreilta. Tutkitut Lounais-Barentsinmeren sedimentit osoittavat, että sedimentit olivat todennäköisimmin peräisin suhteellisen kaukaisilta Fennoscandian lähdealueilta, paikallisista mesotsoosista merenpohjan kerrostumista ja merijään kuljettamasta materiaalista. Kuolan niemimaalla tehty tutkimus osoittaa, että Eem-kauden (MIS 5e) meriympäristö Vienanmeren altaassa ja rannikkoalueilla vähitellen muuttui glaciolakustriseksi ympäristöksi MIS 5d:n ja MIS 5a:n välisenä aikana. Sen jälkeen Skandinavian jääkenttä (SIS) peitti Kuolan niemimaan, todennäköisimmin koko MIS:n 4 ajanjakson. SIS:n lopullinen deglasiaatio alkoi Kuolan niemimaalla kuitenkin myöhäisen Veiksel-jääkauden (MIS 2) aikana noin 16–12 ka sitten.

One of the main attractions for tourists visiting Svalbard, Norway, are polar bears. The polar bear is a vulnerable species, dependent on sea ice to survive as this is where they hunt, wander and raise their cubs. Ship-based tourism poses a number of threats mainly due to the disturbances caused by the presence of ships, damage of critical habitats and the increasing interactions and deadly conflicts between humans and polar bears. Appropriate and effective legislation based on scientific knowledge of the impacts of ship-based tourism on polar bears is necessary to ensure sustainable tourism and environmental protection. Species protection and habitat conservation is not an issue isolated to Svalbard or the polar bears but rather just one part of the pressing global issue concerning loss of biodiversity, which is one of the greatest threats to humankind. The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) aims to ensure the conservation of wild flora and fauna species and their habitats. At the time of signing, the Norwegian Government excluded Svalbard from the application of the Bern Convention, ensuring that national conservation policies for Svalbard would be promoted. The Svalbard Environmental Protection Act is the main act regulating environmental protection on Svalbard, including both general principles and specific provisions regarding species and habitat protection. This paper explores the various needs of the polar bear population in Svalbard and the impacts caused by ship-based tourism. The Bern Convention’s provisions relating to the identified threats posed by ship-based tourism are examined and compared with the corresponding provisions in the Svalbard Environmental Protection Act. Moreover, this paper analyses the potential benefits that could arise from the application of the Bern Convention to the Svalbard territory. This paper concludes that the protection of the polar bears could, de jure, be strengthened by the Bern Convention, mainly due to the extensive interpretation of the types of activities that should be prohibited by signatory states. However, the Bern Convention can only be enforced by non-binding mechanisms and it is therefore unlikely that the application of the convention would lead to stronger protection of the polar bears than that which is provided by national legislation. The protection of the polar bear from threats caused by ship-based tourism would therefore, de facto, most likely not be strengthened by the application of the Bern Convention.