En redovisning enligt IFRS ska ge en rättvisande bild för de finansiella rapporternas användare. För att uppnå den rättvisande bilden har IFRS olika värderingsmetoder, en av dessa är värdering till verkligt värde. Den standarden som hanterar verkligt värde är IFRS 13. Inom verkligt värde finns en värderingshierarki, som innehar tre nivåer. Vid Nivå 3 minskar tillförlitligheten mer än de andra nivåerna. Detta är på grund av möjligheten till att bolaget kan använda sig av subjektiva bedömningar. En standard inom IFRS som tillåter en värdering till verkligt värde är IAS 41. Denna standard hanterar redovisningen av biologiska tillgångar (till exempel skog). Två länder som innehar mycket skogsmark är Sverige och Kanada. Skog har en lång produktionscykel vilket leder till att det är en komplex tillgång att värdera och därför värderas den oftast till Nivå 3. Resultatmanipulering kan uppstå då det sker subjektiva bedömning, vilket kan ge en missledande bild av företagets finansiella ställning. Den problematik med resultatmanipulering och biologiska tillgångar har varit grunden för studiens forskningsfrågor och syfte. Studiens syfte är att förklara hur IAS 41 påverkar tillförlitligheten vid värdering till verkligt värde i de finansiella rapporterna. Det ska även studeras skillnader i resultatmanipuleringens befintlighet inom företag verksamma inom skogsbranschen i Sverige och Kanada. Med hjälp av att analysera olika skogsbolags årsredovisningar gav studien svar på om resultatmanipulering förekommer vid tillämpning av IAS 41 och om skillnader mellan skogsbolag i graden resultatmanipulering belägna i olika länder. I denna studie består datainsamling huvudsakligen av numeriska data ifrån årsredovisningar och därför har en kvantitativ metod valts. Ansatsen är deduktiv och studien bygger på hypoteser för att kunna besvara forskningsfrågorna. För att verifiera eller falsifiera hypoteserna användes olika T-test, regressionsanalyser och även The Modified Jones Model som visar resultatmanipuleringens befintlighet genom att beräkna de godtyckliga periodiseringarna. Populationen i studien består av skogsbolag som tillämpar IFRS. Urvalet kommer vara totalt 14 skogsbolag belägna både Sverige och Kanada. Hälften av de valda skogsbolagen använder sig av IAS 41 och äger biologiska tillgångar. Från urvalet kommer varje företags årsredovisningar under räkenskapsåren 2012 till 2020 att undersökas. Det resultat som undersökningen gett är att skogsbolag tenderar att värdera biologiska tillgångar till Nivå 3. Undersökningen visar också att det förekommer resultatmanipulering i skogsbolag som värderar enligt IAS 41, dock i mindre grad. Regressionsanalysen i undersökningen upplyser att det inte finns ett samband mellan godtyckliga periodiseringar och att redovisa enligt IAS 41. Vidare fanns inga skillnader mellan Sverige och Kanada i graden av resultatmanipulering. Slutsatsen som framgår är att det inte förekommer resultatmanipulering i någon större utsträckning i kanadensiska och svenska skogsbolag. / Accounting in accordance with IFRS must give a true and fair view to the users of the financial statements. To achieve the true and fair view, IFRS has different measurement methods, one of which is fair value. The standard that provides the guidance on fair value measurement is IFRS 13. Within fair value, there is a hierarchy, which has three levels. At the Level 3, the reliability decreases more than the other levels. This is due to the possibility that the company can use subjective assessments. An IFRS standard that allows a fair value measurement is IAS 41. This standard deals with the recognition of biological assets (for example, forests). Two countries that hold a lot of forestland are Sweden and Canada. Forests have a long production cycle andis a complex asset to value, therefore it is most often valued at Level 3. Earnings management can occur when there is a subjective assessment, which can mislead the true and fair view of the company's financial position. The problem of earnings management and biological assets has been the basis for the study's research questions and purpose. The purpose of this study is to explain how IAS 41 affects the reliability of fair value measurement in the financial statements. Differences in the existence of earnings management within companies operating in the forest industry in Sweden and Canada will also be studied. Annual reports of the forest companies are use in this study to provide the answers to whether earnings management occurs, in the application of IAS 41 and if there are any differences between forest companies in the degree of earnings management located in different countries. In this study, data collection consists mainly of numerical data from annual reports and therefore a quantitative method has been chosen. The approach is deductive and this study is based on hypotheses to be able to answer the research questions. To verify or falsify the hypotheses, various T-tests, regression analyzes and The Modified Jones Model were used to show the existence of the earnings management by calculating the discretionary accruals. The population in this study consists of forest companies that applies IFRS. The selection will be a total of 14 forest companies located in both Sweden and Canada. Half of the selected forest companies use IAS 41 and own biological assets. From the sample, each company's annual reports during the financial years 2012 to 2020 will be examined. The result given by the survey is that forest companies tend to value biological assets at Level 3. The survey also shows that there is earnings management in forest companies that value in accordance with IAS 41, but at a lower extent. The regression analysis in the survey states that there is no connection between discretionary accruals and reporting in accordance with IAS 41. Furthermore, in this study there were no differences between Sweden and Canada in the degree of earnings management. The conclusion that emerges is that there is no manipulation of earnings to a large extent in Canadian and Swedish forest companies. This paper is written in swedish.

Submitted by Filipe dos Santos (fsantos@pucsp.br) on 2018-11-09T10:26:02Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Alice Mie Tanikawa Bernice.pdf: 1055918 bytes, checksum: 6ee9e6037c941351ecb791d35e2216ca (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-11-09T10:26:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Alice Mie Tanikawa Bernice.pdf: 1055918 bytes, checksum: 6ee9e6037c941351ecb791d35e2216ca (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-08-28 / The fair value measurement of biological assets brought important changes in the companies engaged in agricultural activities. The method of measurement is highlighted by the discounted future cash flow. The agricultural sector in Brazil has stood out in the international scenario and has had significant weight in the formation of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The fair value that has been adopted by these companies, generates information relevant to the market. The process of adapting to the new accounting standard for asset measurement may have been complex or simple depending on the method adopted, the company structure and systems, among other factors. The immediate impact would be on the Financial Statements (DF), for the directors of the company and users of financial information. Other aspects would have relevant reflexes in this process, which are important to know them. This work intends to contribute to the identification of the impacts caused in a company, its managers, the employees involved in the process of adopting this new form of asset measurement, through the application of the methodology of a case study in a reforestation company, which was adapted to the new way of measuring assets, until then evaluated at historical cost, and started adopting the method of measurement by discounted future cash flow. In addition, the work was characterized by the exploratory approach focused on bibliographic research of the main aspects related to the fair value of biological assets. It is concluded that the adoption of Technical Pronouncement CPC29 - Biological Asset and Agricultural Product has impacted in some aspects such as the financial one, that includes the DF and the operational aspect, in relation to a new activities focused on the fulfillment of this new concept, that is to measure the forests at fair value / A mensuração a valor justo de ativos biológicos trouxe mudanças importantes nas empresas dedicadas às atividades agropecuárias. Destaca-se, dentre as formas de mensuração, a de valor justo, o método por meio do fluxo de caixa futuro descontado. O setor agropecuário no Brasil tem se destacado no cenário internacional e tem tido peso relevante na formação do Produto Interno Bruto (PIB). O valor justo que passou a ser adotado por essas empresas gera informação relevante para o mercado. O processo de adaptação ao novo padrão contábil para mensuração de ativos pode ter sido complexo ou simples, dependendo do método adotado, da estrutura da empresa e sistemas, entre outros fatores. O impacto imediato seria nas Demonstrações Financeiras (DF), para os dirigentes da empresa e usuários de informações financeiras. Outros aspectos teriam reflexos relevantes nesse processo, os quais são importantes conhecê-los. Este trabalho pretende contribuir com a identificação dos impactos causados em uma empresa, aos seus dirigentes e aos funcionários envolvidos no processo de adoção dessa nova forma de mensuração de ativos, através da aplicação da metodologia de um estudo de caso em uma empresa de reflorestamento, que se adaptou à nova forma de mensuração de ativos, até então avaliados ao custo histórico, e que passou a adotar a mensuração a valor justo com a abordagem por meio do fluxo de caixa futuro descontado. Além disso, o trabalho caracterizou-se pela abordagem exploratória voltada para a pesquisa bibliográfica dos principais aspectos relacionados a valor justo de ativo biológico. Conclui-se que a adoção do pronunciamento técnico CPC 29 – Ativo biológico e produto agrícola impactou em alguns aspectos como o financeiro, que compreende as DF, e o operacional, no que tange a novas atividades voltadas para o atendimento deste novo conceito que é o de mensurar as florestas a valor justo

台灣上市上櫃公司從2013年開始依照國際財務報導準則編製財務報告，並依國際會計準則第41號之規定，生物資產原則上以公允價值認列及衡量。本文採用個案研究的方式，探討以公允價值認列及衡量之生物資產是否提供財務報表使用者更為攸關之資訊。 整體而言，本文並未發現我國農業公司採用國際會計準則第41號後，財務報表資訊與股價攸關性顯著提高。其原因可能和實務上普遍存在之契作合約之經營模式有關，導致生物資產佔總資產的比例較低，又樣本公司持有之生物資產生命週期皆短於一個營業週期，因此雖然生物資產以公允價值認列及衡量，對股價的攸關及影響程度有限。 / Listed companies in Taiwan are required to prepare financial reports using IFRS starting in 2013. Therefore, biological assets within the scope of IAS 41 are measured on initial recognition and at subsequent reporting dates at fair value less estimated costs to sell, unless fair value cannot be reliably measured. This study examines whether the fair value of biological assets provide investors with more value relevant information. Overall, this study only finds weak evidence that the fair value of biological assets provide significant explanatory power beyond that provided by historical costs. Leveraging contract farming agreement helps companies transfer the main risk and ownership to a third party and thus weaken the incremental information relevancy of fair value measurements. The short life cycle of the biological assets of the sample may also contribute to the weak results.

Submitted by Guilherme Asai (guilherme.asai@gmail.com) on 2014-10-17T11:17:17Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação ativo biológico.pdf: 1540430 bytes, checksum: ece6ff31761be17ab042789c22ce8c39 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Fabiana da Silva Segura (fabiana.segura@fgv.br) on 2014-10-17T11:58:27Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação ativo biológico.pdf: 1540430 bytes, checksum: ece6ff31761be17ab042789c22ce8c39 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-17T14:53:30Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação ativo biológico.pdf: 1540430 bytes, checksum: ece6ff31761be17ab042789c22ce8c39 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-10-03 / O conceito de valor justo na agricultura, introduzido com a adoção das normas CPC 29 e IAS 41, entre 2009 e 2010, estabeleceu uma nova forma de mensurar e contabilizar os ativos biológicos. A mensuração dos ativos biológicos passa a ser feita, também, pelo meio do valor presente dos fluxos de caixa que o ativo gerará durante sua vida. Através deste novo panorama, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo principal propor uma metodologia que permita mensurar o valor justo de qualquer de ativo biológico, aliando conceitos econômicos e agronômicos. Assim, para compor a proposta metodológica do cálculo do valor justo dos ativos biológicos, buscou-se ajustar alguns parâmetros da composição do fluxo de caixa descontado para que o método consiga aferir a situação da planta ou do animal a ser avaliado no local onde eles se encontram. Além dos ajustes propostos no fluxo de caixa, uma avaliação das condições agronômicas dos ativos biológicos foi recomendada, como parte integrante da metodologia de avaliação proposta. Posteriormente, como alvo secundário, testou-se empiricamente a metodologia proposta (em exceção a parte agronômica) com uma avaliação da lavoura de soja. / The ideia of fair value in agriculture, introduced with the adoption of the CPC 29 and IAS 41 standards, between 2009 and 2010, established a new way of measuring and accounting for biological assets. The measurement of biological assets shall be made, likewise, by the present value of cash flows that the asset will generate during its lifetime. Through this new panorama, this paper aims to propose a methodology to measure the fair value of any biological asset, combining economic and agronomic concepts. Therefore, to compose the proposed methodology of calculation of fair value of biological asset, we attempted to adjust some parameters of the discounted cash flow method wherefore the method can measure the condition of the plant or animal to be evaluated at the place where they found. In addition to the proposed adjustments on discounted cash flow method, an evaluation of agronomic conditions of biological assets was recommended as part of the proposed evaluation methodology. Later, as a secondary aim, was to test empirically the proposed methodology (except in the agronomic part) with an assessment of the soybean crop.

The diploma thesis deals with the definition, measurement and disclosure requirements for products arising from operating activities of companies. Such requirements are con-sidered from the view of external and internal users of accounting, thus how they are reg-ulated in a system of financial, tax and management accounting. The thesis includes de-scription of the defined issue and a comparative analysis of financial accounting which is supplemented by tax implications in the Czech Republic and management account-ing. Besides it compares the legislative requirements of internationally respected ac-counting standards IAS/IFRS and US GAAP with the requirements of the Czech account-ing legislation and hence with the legislative requirements of the European Union. Based on comparative analysis carried out, this work suggests eventual future adjustments of the Czech accounting legislation.

Titel: Vad är skogen verkligen värd? En kvalitativ studie ur redovisningsupprättares perspektiv Nivå: Examensarbete på grundnivå (kandidatexamen) i ämnet företagsekonomi Författare: Josefine Dalman och Maria Husberg Rådström Handledare: Alice Schmuck Datum: 2023 - juni Syfte: Syftet är att undersöka hur värdering av biologiska tillgångar till verkligt värde enligt IAS 41 leder till att redovisningsinformation betraktas som användbar i enlighet med IASB:s primära kvalitativa kriterier. Syftet undersöks utifrån redovisningsupprättares perspektiv. Forskningsfrågan fokuserar på att utreda på vilket sätt redovisningsupprättare anser att IASB:s kriterier om relevans och verklighetstrogen representation uppfylls när biologiska tillgångar värderas till verkligt värde.  Metod: I studien har en kvalitativ metod tillämpats och empirin är insamlad med hjälp av semistrukturerade intervjuer där redovisningsupprättare i svenska skogsbolag har intervjuats. Datan är analyserad och redovisad med hjälp av tematisk analys.  Resultat och slutsats: I studien framkom resultat som i huvudsak ger stöd för att det kvalitativa kriteriet om relevans blir uppfyllt när skogen värderas till verkligt värde. Kriteriet om verklighetstrogen representation uppfylls till viss del men den subjektivitet som värdering till verkligt värde innefattar kan inte avhjälpas fullt ut. Resultaten i studien visar att det finns en viss motstridighet i värdering av biologiska tillgångar till verkligt värde och IASB:s primära kvalitativa kriterier.  Examensarbetets bidrag: Examensarbetet har bidragit till att belysa redovisningsupprättares syn på värdering av skog till verkligt värde och på vilket sätt de betraktar värderingen som användbar utifrån en kvalitativ metod. Det bedöms vara värdefullt att utröna om redovisningsupprättare som ska tillämpa IAS 41 betraktar standarden som användbar och den kvalitativa metoden har bidragit till djup i den analysen. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Det har framkommit från respondenter i studien att värdering till verkligt värde är en kostsam metod som därmed främst genererar relevant redovisningsinformation i noterade skogsbolag. Som grund för fortsatt forskning föreslås därför att undersöka om nyttan med redovisningsinformation till följd av IAS 41 överstiger kostnaden i onoterade skogsbolag till den grad att produktionen av sådan redovisningsinformation kan motiveras.  Nyckelord: IAS 41, verkligt värde, biologiska tillgångar, IASB:s primära kvalitativa kriterier, relevans och verklighetstrogen representation / Title: What is the forest really worth? A qualitative study from the perspective of accountants Level: Bachelor's degree thesis in business administration  Authors: Josefine Dalman and Maria Husberg Rådström Supervisor: Alice Schmuck Date: 2023 - june Aim: The purpose is to investigate how valuation of biological assets at fair value according to IAS 41 leads to accounting information being considered useful in accordance with the IASB's primary qualitative criteria based on the perspective of accountants. The research question focuses on investigating how accountants believe that the IASB's criteria of relevance and faithful representation are met when biological assets are valued at fair value. Method: In the study, a qualitative method has been applied and the empirical evidence has been collected using semi-structured interviews where accountants in Swedish forestry companies have been interviewed. The data is analyzed and reported using thematic analysis. Results and conclusion: The study produced results that essentially provide support for the qualitative criterion of relevance being met when the forest is valued at its fair value. The criterion of faithful representation is fulfilled to some extent, but the subjectivity that valuation at fair value involves cannot be fully remedied. The results of the study show that there is a certain contradiction in the valuation of biological assets at fair value and the IASB's fundamental qualitative characteristics. Contribution of the thesis: The thesis has contributed to elucidate accountants' views on the valuation of forests at fair value and in what way they consider the valuation useful based on a qualitative method. It is considered valuable to find out whether accountants who must apply IAS 41 consider the standard useful and the qualitative method has contributed to the depth of that analysis. Suggestions for future research: It has emerged from respondents in the study that valuation at fair value is a costly method which thus mainly generates relevant accounting information in listed forest companies. As a basis for continued research, it is therefore proposed to investigate whether the benefit of accounting information as a result of IAS 41 exceeds the cost in unlisted forest companies to the extent that the production of such accounting information can be justified. Key words: IAS 41, fair value, biological assets, IASB fundamental qualitative characteristics, relevance and faithful representation

Bakgrund: Växande grödor är en del av biologiska tillgångar och livscykel för en gröda kan sträcka sig över ett år vilket kan vara utmanande vid upprättning av årsredovisning. Värdering av växande grödor har många utmaningar som kan påverka värderingsprocessen, exempelvis naturliga faktorer såsom klimatförhållanden eller växtskadegörare som människan inte kontrollerar. Vidare finns det också andra faktorer som påverkar värderingsprocessen såsom brist på tydliga regler, vägledningar inom Årsredovisningslagen (1995:1554) och Bokföringslagen (1999:1078). Detta visar att det finns komplexitet och svårigheter vid värdering av växande grödor. Värderingsteorin och teori om redovisning i praktik ligger till grund för studien. Problemformulering: Hur sker värderingen av växande grödor vid årsredovisningen? Syftet: Syftet med denna studie är att redogöra för hur värderingen av växande grödor sker och därmed öka förståelsen för redovisningsutövandet av denna tillgång. Metod: Studien använde en kvalitativ metod. Datainsamlingen genomfördes med hjälp av två datainsamlingsmetoder: dokumentstudier och semistrukturerade intervjuer. Dokumentstudier användes för att samla in sekundärdata genom att granska tio årsredovisningar från olika lantbruksaktiebolag. Semistrukturerade intervjuer användes för att samla primärdata om hur värdering av växande grödor sker genom att intervjua tio olika respondenter. Dessa respondenter bestod av tre lantbrukare, fem ekonomer och två experter. Slutsats: Studiens slutsats visar tre olika redovisningsprocesser för växande grödor beroende på lantbruksaktiebolags ekonomiska ställning. Det kan antas att värderingen av växande grödor används för att kunna jämna ut resultaten när det uppstår ekonomiska problem. Därefter påverkar kvaliteten på växande grödor om anskaffningsvärde eller nettoförsäljningsvärde skall tillämpas. / Background: Growing crops is part of biological assets and the lifecycle of a growing crop can be over an year long, which can be a challenge when creating an annual report. Valuation of growing crops has many challenges that can affect the valuation process, for exemple natural factors such as climate conditions or plant pests that cannot be controlled by humans. Further there are other factors that affect valuation process such as unclear regulations or guidance in Årsredovisningslagen (1995:1554) och Bokföringslagen (1999:1078). All this shows complexity and hardship when valuing growing crops. Valuation theory and accounting practice theory is the basis of the study.  Problem formulation: How to do valuations of growing crops when creating an annual report?  Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explain how the valuation of growing crops takes place and thereby increase the understanding of the accounting practice of this asset.  Method: The study used a qualitative method. The data gathering used two different gathering methods: document study and semistructured interviews. Document study was used for gathering secondary data and done by reviewing ten different annual reports from different farming stock corporations. The semi structured interview was used to gather the primary data of valuation of crops by interviewing ten different respondents. These respondents were composed of three farmers, five economics and two experts.  Conclusion: The study conclusion shows three different accounting processes for growing crops that depend on finances of the farming stock company. It may assume that the valuation of growing corpses are used to create a more stable financial position when financial problems occur. Thereafter the quality of growing crops will affect if the historical cost or fair cost will be used.

The pressing global demand to transform to a low-carbon business community, which is required by the urgency of mitigating climate change, significantly alters the operating procedures for carbon emitters and carbon revenue generators alike. Although agricultural activities are not considered as heavy carbon emission source, the increased public focus on climate change has catapulted the exploitation of sustainable agricultural land management mitigating strategies as intervention by the sector. Additionally, the focus on market-based mechanism to address climate change, which has led to the evolution of cap-and-trade schemes, makes the agricultural sector become a source of low-cost carbon offsets. However, the fact that cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sector are voluntary has resulted into not only very diverse farming practices but also diverse accounting practices. The consequences of the diversity practices are that, the impacts on financial performance and position are not comparable. Therefore, the overall objective of this study was to investigate the recognition, measurement and disclosure for cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sectors This study was conducted through literature reviews and empirical test. A qualitative research approach utilising constructivist methodology was employed. Primary data was collected in Kenya by administering three sets of semi-structured questionnaires to drafters of financial statements, loan officers and financial consultants. Secondary data involved content analysis of financial statements and reports of listed entities across the globe. It was established that proper accounting for cap-and-trade schemes adaptation activities is critical to the success of an entity’s environmental portfolio. Additionally, a model for valuing an organisation's carbon capture potential as suggested by this study enables entities to better report the impact of the adaptation activities on the financial performance and financial position. The outcome of this study enables entities to integrate the carbon capture potential on an entity sustainability reporting framework. / Colleges of Economic and Management Sciences / D. Phil. (Accounting Science)

Reporting in terms of the principles of IAS 41, or equivalent, did not result in comparable financial results in the industry. This is mainly due to valuation challenges experienced and the significant costs of these valuations, contributing to the theoretical gap addressed in this study, where the cognitive theory was applied to determine how to improve the consistency, validity and reliability of the fair valuing of biological assets. The knowledge gap is a result of the inconsistent application of the requirements of IAS 41 which results in incomparable financial results which impairs the decision-making of the users of such information. The results of the study were analysed and contextualised to develop an application guideline to assist the financial statement compilers to present results to users that will enhance their decision-making. This guideline is the result of an investigation on the industry trend and standards on how to value, disclose and report on biological assets in the annual reports; an assessment of the valuation challenges experienced, the valuation factors considered and the frequency thereof; an analysis of the valuation inputs applied and a contextualisation of the various users’ expectations when these financial results are assessed. Such assessment included an inductive content analysis, further grounded theory contextualisation and grouping of the results into a guideline that was tested on various users to ensure the usefulness and validity thereof. The purpose of the study and the developed guideline is to determine how to improve the consistency, the validity and the reliability of the fair valuing of biological assets to derive at informing, comparable, decision-enhancing balances in a cost efficient manner when detailed information is presented. / Centre for Accounting Studies / D. Phil. (Accounting Sciences)

Fair value accounting of biological assets in the public sector was introduced with the adoption of the public sector specific accounting standard, Generally Recognised Accounting Practice (GRAP) 101. The public sector currently uses different bases of accounting: public entities and municipalities must use accrual accounting and apply the principles of GRAP, while government departments report on the modified cash basis. Furthermore, public entities do not consistently apply the requirements of GRAP 101. This lack of a uniform basis of accounting has a negative effect on the comparability of financial information. This study identified the challenges facing the public sector in the application of GRAP 101, specifically regarding the fair value accounting of biological assets. The successful implementation of GRAP 101 by a public entity, AsgiSA-EC, was used as a case study to clarify the fair value accounting challenges in the reporting of biological assets in the sector. / Business Management / M. Accounting Science