Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

Denna uppsats undersöker om det finns någon skillnad i kognitiva förmågor mellan kvinnor och män samt hur dessa förmågor värderas på arbetsmarknaden. Frågeställningen som ska besvaras är hur kognitiv förmåga påverkarsannolikhetenattvarasysselsatt,arbetslösocheji arbetskraften för kvinnor och män i Sverige respektive Tyskland. Metoden som används är multipel linjär regression med heteroskedastiska standardfel. För att se hur stor del av skillnaderna i sysselsättning som kan förklaras av att kvinnor och män har olika kognitiva förmågor används Blinder-Oaxaca dekomponering. Resultaten för Sverige visar att läs- och skrivkunnighet är viktigast för kvinnor medan räknefärdighet äravstörstbetydelseförmän.ITysklandärräknefärdighetviktigastförbägge könen. Gemensamt för länderna är att män har större sannolikhet att vara sysselsatta medan kvinnor oftare befinner sig utanför arbetskraften. Vad det gäller arbetslösheten är det ingen signifikant skillnad mellan könen i något av länderna. Blinder-Oaxaca dekomponeringen visar att det i båda länderna finns en skillnad i sysselsättning mellan könen som inte kan förklaras av olika förmåga.

<p>I denna uppsats undersöker vi huruvida invandrare diskrimineras på den svenska arbetsmarknaden. Vi undersöker även om förhållandet skiljer sig när vi endast tittar på gruppen kvinnor, och gör en jämförelse mellan svenskfödda kvinnor och invandrarkvinnor. Vi använder oss av två modeller för att estimera löneskillnader, dummyvariabel modellen och Blinder-Oaxaca modellen. Våra resultat ger tydliga indikationer på lönediskriminering gentemot invandrare, kvinnor och en ännu tydligare lönediskriminering gentemot invandrarkvinnor. Vi anser att invandrarkvinnor drabbas av en så kallad dubbel diskriminering, där den övriga populationen i genomsnitt ges 28,4% högre lön än invandrarkvinnor.</p> / <p>In this thesis we investigate whether immigrant are being discriminated on the Swedish labor market. We also examine if this differentiates itself when we put our focus on the women as a group and thereafter make comparison between Swedish born women and women born outside Sweden. We have employed two models in order to determine wage differences, the dummy variable model and the Blinder-Oaxaca model. Our results show a distinct indication of wage discrimination against immigrants, women and even a more comprehensive discrimination towards immigrant women. Immigrant women have in general 28,4% lower wage than the average population. According to our findings therefore, foreign women are subjects to double discrimination.</p>

I denna uppsats undersöker vi huruvida invandrare diskrimineras på den svenska arbetsmarknaden. Vi undersöker även om förhållandet skiljer sig när vi endast tittar på gruppen kvinnor, och gör en jämförelse mellan svenskfödda kvinnor och invandrarkvinnor. Vi använder oss av två modeller för att estimera löneskillnader, dummyvariabel modellen och Blinder-Oaxaca modellen. Våra resultat ger tydliga indikationer på lönediskriminering gentemot invandrare, kvinnor och en ännu tydligare lönediskriminering gentemot invandrarkvinnor. Vi anser att invandrarkvinnor drabbas av en så kallad dubbel diskriminering, där den övriga populationen i genomsnitt ges 28,4% högre lön än invandrarkvinnor. / In this thesis we investigate whether immigrant are being discriminated on the Swedish labor market. We also examine if this differentiates itself when we put our focus on the women as a group and thereafter make comparison between Swedish born women and women born outside Sweden. We have employed two models in order to determine wage differences, the dummy variable model and the Blinder-Oaxaca model. Our results show a distinct indication of wage discrimination against immigrants, women and even a more comprehensive discrimination towards immigrant women. Immigrant women have in general 28,4% lower wage than the average population. According to our findings therefore, foreign women are subjects to double discrimination.

Drawing on European Social Survey, the main objective of this essay is to analyse the difference in the probability of being unemployed between natives and foreign born in Sweden. Using traditional statistical methods such as Linear Probability Model (LPM) and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition and controlling for standard socio-economic variables we found that immigrants born in Europe have 5.3 percentage point higher likelihood of being unemployed compared to their Swedish counterpart. Regarding non-European we found that they have 5.2 percentage points higher probability of being unemployed compared to Swedish counterpart. An extension of BlinderOaxaca decomposition suggests that 4.9 percentage points of this gap is due to differences in endowment characteristics between immigrants born in Europe and Swedish counterpart. The difference in the characteristics between nonEuropean and natives amounts to 5.3 percentage points. On the other hand, approximately 1.5 and 10.3 percentage points of the differences in the unemployment probability between immigrants born in Europe and countries outside Europe and Swedish counterpart can be ascribe to different returns to those observable and/or unobservable characteristics that are not captured in the models.

本研究主旨是從人力資本理論以及勞動市場條件的觀點，來探討原、漢族群的工資不平等之現象根源。長久以來，原住民從成長、學校教育，到進入職場，莫不受各種條件的不足所制，以至於與主流社會的社經處境有難以克服的落差。本研究採用2007年「社會變遷基本調查第五期第三次」階層組以及休閒組調查，和2007年「臺灣原住民社會變遷與政策評估調查研究」，三筆具代表性且規模相近的面訪資料、共2393位私部門受雇者來加以比較。透過群體加權校正，本研究首先透過多元迴歸與交互作用分析，來探討兩族群的人力資本和勞動市場條件與工資取得高低之間的關係。接著，再以經Heckman校正Blinder-Oaxaca差異分解，來分析兩族群工資落差中的結構與現象差異。 研究結果顯示，人力資本和勞動市場條件能說明原住民族與漢人之間，確有工資上的族群歧視現象。原住民教育的工資報酬率在義務教育階段後即無顯著效果，而不同於漢人能持續成長；不論是年資、職業聲望或是工作型態，原住民的工資報酬率都顯著也比漢人低落，且影響更勝教育差異。這些現象即使是在差異分解校正結構差異後依舊存在。是故，既有量化研究除了從教育面向來探討原、漢族群社經不平等之外，實應持續重視原住民族進入職場後，所面對的勞動市場問題。 / The aim of this research is to study the wage gap between aborigines and Han Chinese in Taiwan. The research explores the impacts of human capital and labor market conditions on the wage gap. Throughuot the life course trajectories of schooling and labor market participation, aborigines in Taiwan persistently face dire straits, resulting in insurmountable soci-economic gaps with Han Chinese. The data sources of the research are from Taiwan Social Changy Survey (TSCS) 2007, Phase 5, Wave 3: The Social Stratification module and The Leisure Time module, and Social Change and Policy of Taiwanese Indigenous Peoples Survey (TIPS) 2007, which are representative to the adult population in Taiwan. The total sample sizes are 2393 employees in private sector and roughly equal in size between two ethnics. With weighting, regression interaction effects were estimated to analyze the impacts of human capital and labor market conditions on wage differences between aborigines and Han Chinese. Moreover, the research uses two-steps Heckman selection model to correct selection bias of labor marke participation as well as Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition to analyze the ethnic disparities in wage. The finding of interaction models show that human capital and labor market conditions can explain the wage gap and reveal the negative effects of discrimination against aborigines. While only the compulsory education has positive effects on aborigines’ wage, Han Chinese could benefit from all stage of education. Job tenures, occupational prestiage, and employment types are more benefitical to Han Chinese than to aborigines, and the impacts of these factors on wage are greater than education. These results are also consistent with decomposition analysis. Other than education inequality, the finding of this research suggests that future studies of ethnic disparities in soci-economic inequality should concern more about ethnic differences in labor market conditons.

nÃo hà / A presente Tese à formada pela junÃÃo de trÃs estudos na Ãrea de microeconometria relacionada ao mercado de trabalho brasileiro, buscando levantar questÃes que buscam explicar os diferenciais salariais entre diferentes grupos presentes neste mercado. Em cada capÃtulo foi empregado trÃs diferentes metodologias de estimaÃÃo com o uso de diferentes bases de dados. No primeiro capÃtulo, AnÃlise dos Diferenciais de SalÃrios no Mercado de Trabalho Brasileiro a partir da OrientaÃÃo Sexual, procurou-se medir o diferencial de salÃrios a partir da orientaÃÃo sexual no mercado de trabalho brasileiro, fazendo uso da nova metodologia de identificaÃÃo de arranjos familiares apresentada no Censo de 2010 (IBGE). ApÃs estimar as equaÃÃes de salÃrios com correÃÃo do viÃs de seleÃÃo amostral proposto por Heckman (1979) os resultados apontaram na direÃÃo de ausÃncia de discriminaÃÃo contra as minorias de gays e lÃsbicas no mercado de trabalho nacional. O segundo capÃtulo, DecomposiÃÃo Contrafactual de Oaxaca-Blinder dos Diferenciais de SalÃrios por GÃnero e RaÃa no Mercado de Trabalho Privado Brasileiro com CorreÃÃo de ViÃs de SeleÃÃo Amostral: Uma AnÃlise para Setores EconÃmicos e Tipos de OcupaÃÃes, fez uso da base de dados da PNAD do IBGE (2013), quando se buscou analisar as principais causas da desigualdade salarial por gÃnero e raÃa no mercado de trabalho privado brasileiro detalhando por setores de atividade econÃmica e por tipos de ocupaÃÃo. Para se alcanÃar tal objetivo foi utilizado a metodologia de decomposiÃÃo salarial na mÃdia proposta por Oaxaca-Blinder (1973), apÃs a estimaÃÃo das equaÃÃes de salÃrios quando tambÃm foram feitas as correÃÃes da seletividade amostral. Os principais resultados apontaram para a importÃncia das variÃveis de capital humano para explicaÃÃo de grande parte do diferencial de salÃrios entre homens brancos e os demais grupos investigados via diferenÃas de dotaÃÃes, em especial, a variÃvel escolaridade que ajuda a reduzir o diferencial de salÃrios entre os homens brancos e as mulheres brancas e negras. Chama atenÃÃo a participaÃÃo em alguns tipos de ocupaÃÃes quando as mulheres brancas e negras ganham, em mÃdia, mais que os homens brancos. Por fim, a elevada participaÃÃo e representatividade do termo de intercepto, na explicaÃÃo do diferencial de salÃrios por gÃnero e raÃa, tanto no mercado de trabalho total, como na maioria dos setores econÃmicos e tipos de ocupaÃÃes investigadas explica a maior parte deste fenÃmeno, quando o homem branco ganha mais, simplesmente porque à homem e branco. O terceiro e Ãltimo capÃtulo, MudanÃas Estruturais nos Retornos Educacionais e nos Diferenciais Raciais de SalÃrios por GÃnero no Brasil para Diferentes Grupos de Idade: Uma Abordagem de RegressÃo QuantÃlica com CorreÃÃo do ViÃs de SeleÃÃo Amostral, fez 7 uso das PNADS de 2003 e 2013 e de tÃcnicas de regressÃo quantÃlica com correÃÃo de viÃs de seleÃÃo proposto por Buchinsky (1998b) para analisar mudanÃas nos retornos da educaÃÃo e nos diferenciais raciais de salÃrios por gÃnero e por grupos de idade no mercado de trabalho brasileiro entre os anos dois anos. Diferentes valores para os retornos da escolaridade e para os diferenciais raciais foram observados principalmente nos quantis mais elevados da distribuiÃÃo de salÃrios para quase todas as faixas de idade. Os retornos salariais das mulheres ficaram acima dos retornos salariais dos homens para todos os quantis estimados, em todos os grupos de idade, nos dois anos analisados. Por fim, nota-se uma reduÃÃo nÃtida nos retornos salariais para ambos os sexos e a melhora no padrÃo de discriminaÃÃo no mercado de trabalho brasileiro entre anos de 2003 e 2013. / This thesis is formed by the junction of three studies in Microeconometrics area related to the Brazilian labor market, seeking to raise questions that try to explain the pay gap between different groups present in this market. In each chapter was used three different methods of estimation with the use of different databases. In the first chapter, Analysis of Wage Differentials in the Brazilian labor market from the Sexual Orientation, sought to measure the wage differential from sexual orientation in the Brazilian labor market, using the new methodology of identification of family arrangements presented in Census 2010 (IBGE). After estimating the wage equations with correction of sample selection bias proposed by Heckman (1979) the results pointed in the direction of non-discrimination against minorities of gays and lesbians in the national labor market. The second chapter, Counterfactual decomposition of Oaxaca - Blinder Wage Differentials by Gender and Race in the Brazilian Private Job Market with Bias Correction Sample Selection: An Analysis for Economic Sectors and Types of Occupations, made use of the National Household Survey database IBGE (2013), when it sought to analyze the root causes of wage inequality by gender and race in the Brazilian private labor market detailing by sectors of economic activity and types of occupation. To achieve this goal we used the wage decomposition methodology on average proposed by Oaxaca - Blinder (1973), after the estimation of wage equations when the corrections were also made of the sample selectivity. The main results pointed to the importance of human capital variables to explain much of the wage gap between white men and other groups investigated via differences appropriations, in particular the variable schooling that helps reduce the wage differential between white men and white and black women. Noteworthy is the participation in some types of occupations when white and black women earn on average more than white men. Finally, the high participation and representativeness of the intercept term, the wage differential explanation by gender and race, both in the overall labor market, as in most economic sectors and types of occupations investigated explains most of this phenomenon when the white man earns more , simply because he is man and white. The third and final chapter, Structural Changes in Education Returns and Differential Wage Race for Gender in Brazil for Different Groups of Age: An Approach of quantile regression with bias correction of Sample Selection, made use of the National Household Survey 2003 and 2013 and quantile regression techniques with selection bias correction proposed by Buchinsky (1998b) to analyze changes in the returns to education and racial differentials by gender wage and age groups in the Brazilian labor market between 9 the two years. Different values for the returns of schooling and racial differences were mainly observed in the highest quantile of the distribution of wages for almost all age groups. The wage returns of women were above the wage returns of men for all estimated quantile in all age groups in the two years analyzed. Finally, it is worth mentioning the reduction in wage returns to both sexes and the improvement in the standard of discrimination in the national labor market between the years 2003 and 2013.

Le secteur public joue un rôle important dans la société. Dans la plupart des pays en développement, les dépenses publiques constituent une partie importante du PIB et les entités du secteur public sont les principaux pourvoyeurs d’emploi et les principaux acteurs du marché des capitaux. Le secteur public détermine, généralement par le biais d'un processus politique, ses objectifs économiques et sociaux ainsi que les différents types d'intervention à mettre en place pour les atteindre. Comment le secteur public atteint ses objectifs constitue une question cruciale étant donné que sa taille et son importance économique en font un moteur principal de la croissance et du bien-être social. Ses performances sont jugées à travers la qualité et la nature de sa gestion des finances publiques, les infrastructures qu'il finance ainsi que la qualité de sa régulation des activités économiques. La manière dont les activités du secteur public délivrent les résultats attendus est ainsi une variable clé du développement; pourtant les études empiriques pour comprendre ce qui fonctionne dans le secteur public et pourquoi restent remarquablement limitées. Deux principales raisons expliquent cette situation: les performances dans ce secteur sont difficiles à analyser car les outputs des divers services qu’il fournit sont difficiles à mesurer et même à définir, et le manque de données quantitatives et qualitatives rend difficile une analyse économétrique rigoureuse.Dès lors, l’objectif de cette thèse est de documenter cette littérature et de proposer différentes méthodes empiriques pour évaluer les performances du secteur public dans les pays en développement. Notre analyse est organisée comme suit: la Première Partie - Chapitres 1 et 2 - présente deux essais sur l’évaluation des performances du secteur public “en amont” tandis que la Seconde Partie - Chapitres 3 et 4 - présente deux essais sur l’évaluation des performances du secteur public “en aval” Le Chapitre 1 fait usage de la technique de Blinder-Oaxaca pour examiner comment la qualité des institutions budgétaires affecte les performances budgétaires – déficit budgétaire et dette publique - en Afrique sub-Saharienne. Dans le Chapitre 2, nous utilisons une approche par le Synthetic Control pour étudier l'impact des Offices de Recettes sur la mobilisation des ressources publiques dans une vingtaine de pays en développement. Le Chapitre 3 présente un Benchmarking systématique des performances infrastructurelles de l'Afrique dans les secteurs de l'électricité, de l'eau et de l’assainissement, des technologies de l'information et de la communication, et des transports. Enfin nous évaluons, dans le Chapitre 4, les effets de la mise en place d'une Autorité Indépendante de Régulation sur les performances du secteur de l'électricité dans les pays en développement. / The public sector plays a major role in society. In most developing countries, public expenditure represents a significant part of gross domestic product (GDP) and public sector entities are substantial employers and major capital market participants. The public sector determines, usually through a political process, the outcomes it wants to achieve and the different types of intervention. How the public sector achieves results matters as its size and economic significance make it a major contributor to growth and social welfare. Its achievements emerge in the quality and nature of its financial management, the infrastructure it finances and the quality of its social and economic regulation. How well those public sector activities deliver their expected outcomes is a key development variable; yet explicit evidence base for understanding what works and why in the public sector remains strikingly limited compared with other policy areas. There are two main reasons for this situation: the performance in these areas is difficult to analyze because the outputs of many such services are hard to measure or even to define, and the lack of quantitative and qualitative longitudinal data precludes rigorous econometric analysis.Therefore the objective of this thesis is to document this literature and to propose different ways of measuring public sector performance in developing countries. The dissertation is divided into two Parts: the first Part – Chapters 1 and 2 – presents two essays on “upstream” public sector performance while the second Part – Chapters 3 and 4 – presents two essays on “downstream” public sector performance. The Chapter 1 makes use of the Blinder-Oaxaca Decomposition to examine how the quality of budget institutions affects fiscal performance – Primary Balance and Public Debt – in sub-Saharan Africa. In Chapter 2 we use a Synthetic Control Approach to investigate the impact of Semi-Autonomous Revenue Authorities (SARAs) on revenue mobilization in twenty developing countries. The chapter 3 provides a first systematic Benchmarking of Africa’s infrastructure performance on four major sectors: electricity, water and sanitation, information and communication technologies, and transportation. Finally we evaluate the effects of the establishment of an Independent Regulatory Authority (IRA) on electricity sector performance in developing countries in Chapter 4.

Il est bien connu que les immigrants rencontrent plusieurs difficultés d’intégration dans le marché du travail canadien. Notamment, ils gagnent des salaires inférieurs aux natifs et ils sont plus susceptibles que ces derniers d’occuper des emplois précaires ou pour lesquels ils sont surqualifiés. Dans cette recherche, nous avons traité de ces trois problèmes sous l’angle de la qualité d’emploi. À partir des données des recensements de la population de 1991 à 2006, nous avons comparé l’évolution de la qualité d’emploi des immigrants et des natifs au Canada, mais aussi au Québec, en Ontario et en Colombie-Britannique. Ces comparaisons ont mis en évidence la hausse du retard de qualité d’emploi des immigrants par rapport aux natifs dans tous les lieux analysés, mais plus particulièrement au Québec. Le désavantage des immigrants persiste même lorsqu’on tient compte du capital humain, des caractéristiques démographiques et du taux de chômage à l’entrée dans le marché du travail. La scolarité, l’expérience professionnelle globale et les connaissances linguistiques améliorent la qualité d’emploi des immigrants et des natifs. Toutefois, lorsqu’on fait la distinction entre l’expérience de travail canadienne et l’expérience de travail étrangère, on s’aperçoit que ce dernier type d’expérience réduit la qualité d’emploi des immigrants. Dans ces circonstances, nous trouvons incohérent que le Canada et le Québec continuent à insister sur ce critère dans leur grille de sélection des travailleurs qualifiés. Pour valoriser les candidats les plus jeunes ayant peu d’expérience de travail dans leur pays d’origine, nous suggérons d’accroître l’importance accordée à l’âge dans ces grilles au détriment de l’expérience. Les jeunes, les étudiants étrangers et les travailleurs temporaires qui possèdent déjà une expérience de travail au Canada nous apparaissent comme des candidats à l’immigration par excellence. Par contre, les résultats obtenus à l’aide de la méthode de décomposition de Blinder-Oaxaca ont montré que l’écart de qualité d’emploi entre les immigrants et les natifs découle d’un traitement défavorable envers les immigrants dans le marché du travail. Cela signifie que les immigrants sont pénalisés au chapitre de la qualité d’emploi à la base, et ce, peu importe leurs caractéristiques. Dans ce contexte, la portée de tout ajustement aux grilles de sélection risque d’être limitée. Nous proposons donc d’agir également en aval du problème à l’aide des politiques d’aide à l’intégration des immigrants. Pour ce faire, une meilleure concertation entre les acteurs du marché du travail est nécessaire. Les ordres professionnels, le gouvernement, les employeurs et les immigrants eux-mêmes doivent s’engager afin d’établir des parcours accélérés pour la reconnaissance des compétences des nouveaux arrivants. Nos résultats indiquent aussi que le traitement défavorable à l’égard des immigrants dans le marché du travail est plus prononcé au Québec qu’en Ontario et en Colombie-Britannique. Il se peut que la société québécoise soit plus réfractaire à l’immigration vu son caractère francophone et minoritaire dans le reste de l’Amérique du Nord. Pourtant, le désir de protéger la langue française motive le Québec à s’impliquer activement en matière d’immigration depuis longtemps et la grille de sélection québécoise insiste déjà sur ce critère. D’ailleurs, près des deux tiers des nouveaux arrivants au Québec connaissent le français en 2011. / It is well documented that immigrants face many difficulties in the Canadian labour market. Particularly, compared to native-born, they earn lower wages, occupy more precarious jobs and are often overqualified. In this research, we discuss these three issues in terms of job quality. Using the data from the 1991 to 2006 Canadian population censuses, we compare the trends in job quality of immigrants and native-born in Canada, Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. These comparisons highlight the rising gap in job quality between immigrants and native-born in the four geographical areas, but especially in Quebec. This gap persists even after controlling human capital, demographic variables and unemployment rate at entry in the labour market. Overall, we found that education, work experience and language skills improve the job quality of immigrants and their native-born counterparts. However, when we separate Canadian and foreign work experience, we find that the latter type of experience reduces job quality of immigrants. In these circumstances, it is counterproductive that Canada and Quebec continue to insist on this criterion in the point systems. We also suggest increasing the importance of age in the point systems in order to encourage the admission of younger candidates with little or no foreign experience. Youth, foreign students and temporary workers who already have work experience in Canada appear to be ideal candidates for immigration. Nevertheless, using Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method, we show that the job quality gap between immigrants and natives is mainly due to unfavourable treatment of immigrants in the labour market. This means that immigrants are penalized in terms of job quality regardless of their characteristics. In this context, the selection of the best candidates for immigration may produce a limited effect. We therefore suggest acting downstream with public policy to support employment integration of immigrants. To do so, a better coordination between all actors in the labour market is required. Professional orders, government, employers and immigrants must establish accelerated pathways of skills recognition for newcomers. In addition, our results indicate that the treatment of immigrants in the labour market is more problematic in Quebec compared to Ontario and British Columbia. It is likely that Quebec society is less open to immigration given its francophone character and its minority status in North America. Since the beginning, the desire to protect the French language motivates Quebec to be actively involved in immigration and the Quebec point system already emphasizes this criterion. Moreover, nearly two-thirds of newcomers to Quebec speak French in 2011.