Humans have an innate need to evaluate themselves and their progress toward life goals and they fulfill this need by comparing themselves to others. One way in which individuals conduct social comparisons is by comparing their possessions with the possessions of others. Prior literature suggests that consumers purchase and conspicuously use brands, not only for their functional benefits, but also for their psychological benefits. These psychological benefits can include reaffirmation of one’s status or group membership and increased self-esteem. Although previous research shows that social comparisons can influence consumer attitudes and behavior, it has focused primarily on the negative consequences of upward comparisons and the positive consequences of downward comparisons in the pre-purchase context. Because consumers do not stop conducting social comparisons once they purchase a brand, it is important to understand how social comparisons affect consumer attitudes and behavioral intentions in a post-purchase context. Additionally, little research has addressed how factors such as a brand’s concept and whether the brand will be used in public (vs. private) affect the relationship between the direction of social comparisons and consumer attitudes and behavioral intentions. This dissertation is focused on filling these gaps by looking at the potentially negative effects of downward comparisons and potentially positive effects of upward comparisons on consumer post-purchase attitudes and behavioral intentions. Specifically, this dissertation examines how observing an unsuccessful (successful) other using the same brand affects consumer attitudes toward the brand, preferences for conspicuous consumption, and repurchase intentions. This dissertation also examines how a brand’s concept and whether the brand is used primarily in public vs. private moderates this relationship. Unlike previous research that shows social comparisons can influence people’s preferences in a pre-purchase context, this research investigated how social comparisons influence people’s attitudes and behavioral intentions in the post-purchase context. Specifically, I examined how people’s attitudes and behavioral intentions towards brands they already own can differ based upon the direction of social comparisons. An examination of social comparison’s effects in the post-purchase context is important given the benefits that repeat and loyal customers provide firms. Results indicate that consumer post-purchase brand attitudes, repurchase intentions, and preferences for conspicuous consumption differ based upon the direction of social comparison. This indicates that attitudes and behavioral intentions can change based upon the direction of the comparison. Results also indicate that the effects of social comparisons on consumer attitudes and behavior are significant for symbolic brands but not for functional brands. Results also indicate that the effects of social comparisons on consumer attitudes and behavior are significant for public brands but not private brands. Finally, results indicate that perceived similarity between a consumer and comparison target mediates the relationship between social comparison and consumer attitudes and behavior. Theoretically, this research adds to the social comparison literature by showing the potentially negative consequences of downward comparisons on consumer attitudes and behavioral attitudes in the post-purchase context. It is also among the first to examine how a brand's concept interacts with the direction of a social comparison. Managerially, this research draws managers' attention to the importance of keeping brand concepts consistent.

Nowadays enterprises use brand strategy to enhance product¡¦s depth and width, raising the customers¡¦ evaluation on brand. To lower the cost of launching a new product, enterprise usually uses line extension to launch a new product. Most researches about the effect of product line extension on consumer evaluation all focus on physical product. Research focuses on service product is rare. This study focuses on service product, and wants to know the application of vertical extension strategy in service industry. Although extension direction is main strategy when doing product line extension in practical use, extension direction is considered as moderating variable to others, not main issue in previous academic studies. Thus this study treats extension direction as main body of the research, and discusses the changes of consumers¡¦ attitudes towards parent brand and extension brand in different situation. This study chooses two hotels, The LALU and CHINATRUST Hotel which are real and have different brand concepts, as the design scenario, using experiment design to understand consumers¡¦ evaluations at extension service and parent brand when facing different directions of product line extension. Besides, this study uses service continuity to replace ownership effect, and chooses extension direction as main effect, observing the interaction between extension direction and brand concepts, service continuity and branding strategy, trying to understand the factors influencing consumers¡¦ evaluation in product line extension. This study finds consumers¡¦ evaluation of upward extension is significantly higher than downward extension during product line extension. However, no matter upward or downward, consumers¡¦ evaluation on parent brand become lower. The prestige-oriented brand concept enhances this negative effect, but branding strategy of subbrand can ease this effect.

For many enterprises, brand extension has played an important role in the new products developement and brand strategy. By using brand extension, corporation could reduce costs and effectivly gain their reputation while they sell new products. Recently, certain reserch about brand extension have shown that the key factor of successful brand extension lies in the connection between consumer brand extension and parent brand, the more related of the brands and the products, the higher of the effect of brand extension. In addition, self-construals also make effects in understanding the effects of brand extensions. In this study, we form the concept from this base and would like to exam the further extension effect of brand concept and the distance of each case. Also, we would like to testify how would different self-construals of consumer products works while they evaluate the products and try to examine their influence to consumer through advertising techniques by the extension of self-construals and product reviews. In this study, we use really existed brand as our studing case ,"Nike", "Adidas" and "New balance". We would like to explore the different brand extension degree lie in several types of consumer self-construals from the case. In this study, based on attitude function theory, we form the questions toward advertising manipulation of different attitudes inoder to explore whether consumer self-construals affect cognition, and thus affect the extension of consumer product evaluation. The results indicate that, in general, different types of consumer self-construals for evaluation of the product from the extension make significant difference in distance extension products. When the parent brand as a functional brand concept, no matter the distance or distance extension products, self-construals on the extension of product evaluation is not significant. The study also find that different attitude affects advertising strategy for the consumer, and have no significant effects for self-construals. In addition, they can not affect the extension of product evaluation.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of loyalty in consumers’ selection of brand extensions in the presence of familiar competitors. The findings show that fit may not have a linear relationship with the choice of an extension when loyalty and brand familiarity are considered. Loyal consumers’ likelihood to choose high-fit and moderate-fit extensions is not much lower than their likelihood to choose products from familiar competitors. We also find an inverted-U-shaped relationship between choice behavior and degree of perceived fit for loyal and moderately loyal consumers. Moreover, brand concepts can make a brand more elastic and extendable, increasing loyal and moderately loyal consumers’ likelihood to choose moderate- and even low-fit extensions. However, disloyal consumers are highly unlikely to choose extensions over products from familiar competitors regardless of fit and types of similarity. Finally, the effect of similarity on consumers’ choice of extensions is fully mediated by loyalty and perceived risks.

Notre recherche s’inscrit au cœur du phénomène nouveau des marques de territoires. Nous avons abordé cet engouement territorial en le situant au cœur des pratiques de marketing territorial. Cette discipline a retenu notre attention pour différentes raisons : il s’agit d’une discipline jeune et énormément critiquée pour son « insuffisance de connaissances ». Mais il s’agit également d’une discipline en attente d’une nouvelle structuration. Au cœur de cette étude, nous avons déterminé les liens très forts unissant les pratiques de marketing territorial et l’attractivité. Nous nous sommes donc positionnés en faveur d’une analyse de ce phénomène nouveau, que sont les marques de territoire, afin de le matérialiser, le décortiquer et surtout de comprendre sa place dans les logiques de marketing appliquées au territoire. Nous avons retenu deux cas d’études de cette pratique : Only Lyon et Bretagne. / This research joins at the heart of the new phenomenon of place branding. We approached this territorial craze by placing it in the heart of the practices of place marketing. This discipline caught our attention for various reasons: it is about a young discipline and enormously criticized for its " insufficiency of knowledge ". But it is also about a discipline awaiting a new structuring. At the heart of this research, we determined the very strong links uniting the practices of place marketing and the attractiveness. We positioned in favour of an analysis of this new phenomenon, that are place brands, and especially to understand its place in the applied logics of place marketing. We have analyzed two places brands cases : Only Lyon and Bretagne.

Martin Lindstrom (2005a) 指出除了視覺，嗅覺其實才是人類五官中最重要的，然而目前國內嗅覺相關之研究仍相當稀少。本研究由消費者之觀點出發，主要探討嗅覺線索與標的產品之一致性與否對消費者態度與購買意願的影響，並分析在「涉入程度」及「品牌概念」的調節作用下，對上述關係有何影響。 本研究經由前測，選擇手錶與運動鞋兩產品類別進入正式實驗，手錶產品類別中，以Swatch為象徵型品牌，CASIO為功能型品牌；運動鞋產品類別則以Puma為象徵型品牌，New Balance為功能型品牌。並以模擬的8張彩色平面廣告，施測於530位政大大學部之學生，進行2 (產品類別：手錶/運動鞋) x 2 (嗅覺線索：一致/不一致) x 2 (涉入程度：高/低) x 2 (品牌概念：象徵型品牌/功能型品牌) 的正式實驗。 研究結果顯示：一、就嗅覺線索主效果而言，與標的產品不一致的嗅覺線索比一致性之嗅覺線索更能提高消費者對產品的評價。二、在品牌概念的調節作用下，與標的產品不一致的嗅覺線索比一致性的嗅覺線索更能提升消費者對產品的評價，此情況在消費者面對功能型品牌時比象徵型品牌還要明顯。 整體而言，嗅覺線索的確會影響消費者對產品之評價。本研究提供行銷人員未來在採用嗅覺線索時，可考量的更多因素，以選擇合適的嗅覺線索加以應用。 / Martin Lindstrom (2005a) pointed out that other than sight, smell is the most important sense in the human anatomy. However, research on smell is still rare. This research sets out from the consumer perspective to discuss the effects that consistency between olfactory cues and target products have on purchase intention. Moderating effects of involvement and brand concept are also studied for their effects on the study. Watches and sport shoes were selected as the target products for this study. The symbolic brand in the watch category is Swatch, whereas the functional brand is CASIO; in terms of sport shoes, the symbolic brand is Puma, while the functional brand is New Balance. A2 (product category: watch / sport shoes) x 2 (olfactory cues: congruity / incongruity)x 2 (involvement: high / low) x 2 (brand concept: symbolic brand /functional brand) experimental design collected data from 530 Chengchi university students through 8 color printed advertisements. Research findings indicate the following. (1) In terms of the main olfactory cue effect, olfactory cues that are incongruent with the target product can better increase consumers’ evaluation of the product than congruent olfactory cues. (2) In terms of the brand concept moderating effect, olfactory cues that are incongruent with the target product can better increase consumers’ evaluation of the product than congruent olfactory cues. This is more evident when consumers deal with functional brands than when dealing with symbolic brands. To sum up, olfactory cues do in fact influence consumers’ evaluations of products. This study provides marketers with numerous factors that should be considered when selecting the adequate olfactory cues.

本研究從消費者的觀點出發，比較功能型或象徵型的母品牌，進行產品線向下延伸時，以母品牌直接推出或品牌傘兩種策略下，不同奢華態度消費者的購買意願是否有所差異。 本研究經由前測，選擇兩種產品類別進入正式實驗，並為兩產品類別進行品牌傘策略的產品線延伸，各創造一個副品牌，以及向下延伸的價格。數位相機類別中，以SONY為象徵型品牌，以Nikon為功能型品牌，並以Quanta為副品牌名稱，依7999元推出新款數位相機；手錶類別中，以Swatch為象徵型品牌，以Casio為功能型品牌，並以Axis為副品牌名稱，依899元推出新款手錶。本研究總共模擬8張彩色平面廣告，施測於320位政大學生，進行2 (產品線向下延伸策略：以母品推出、品牌傘策略) x 2 (品牌觀念：功能型、象徵型) x 2 (消費者奢華態度：高、低奢華態度群) 的實驗。 研究結果顯示：一、就品牌策略主效果而言，消費者對於以母品牌直接推出低價新產品的購買意願，高於品牌傘策略。二、在品牌觀念的調節作用下，象徵型品牌推出低價新產品時，以母品牌直接推出低價新產品的消費者購買意願，優於品牌傘策略的程度，大於功能型品牌。三、在高價品牌推出低價新產品時，高奢華態度的消費者，在以母品牌直接推出時的購買意願，優於品牌傘策略的幅度，大於低奢華態度的消費者。 當該品牌為功能品牌時，消費者在兩品牌策略下的購買意願間差距較小，此時企業可較為彈性運用此兩種策略推出低價新產品；而當品牌為象徵型品牌時，消費者對以母品牌推出的低價新產品之購買意願，較品牌傘策略下高出許多，因此企業以母品牌推出低價新產品，應能吸引較多的消費者。 該品牌的目標客群主要為低奢華態度群時，目標客群對兩品牌策略的購買意願間差距較小，企業可彈性使用兩種策略；當目標客群主要為高奢華態度群，兩品牌策略下的購買意願差距大，以母品牌推出低價新產品，能吸引較多的消費者。 / The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of two kinds of product downward line stretch’s branding strategies: original branding strategy and umbrella branding strategy. Based on the moderate effect of brand concept and consumer attitude toward luxury, the influence of these two strategies on the consumer purchase intention will be evaluated. Cameras and watches were selected as products for this study. When dividing brand concept into symbolic and functional concept, Sony and Nikon were selected as the camera brands by this order; Swatch and Casio were also chosen as the watch brands. A 2 (product downward line stretch’s branding strategies: original branding strategy and umbrella branding strategy) x 2 (brand concept: functional brand and symbolic brand) x 2 (consumer’s attitude toward luxury: positive and negative) experimental design collected data from 320 Cheng-chi university students through 8 color printed advertisements. The main effect of brand strategy suggested that the original branding strategy is prior to the umbrella branding strategy on consumer purchase intention. Under the moderate effect of brand concept, it is suggested that the gap between the original branding strategy prior to the umbrella branding strategy on the consumer purchase intention is wider for the symbolic brand than for the functional brand. Under the moderate effect of consumer’s attitude toward luxury, it is suggested that the gap between the original branding strategy prior to the umbrella branding strategy on the consumer purchase intention of consumers with positive attitude toward luxury is wider than consumers with negative attitude toward luxury. To sum up, firms must differentiate brand strategies between brand concepts of brand and attitudes toward luxury of consumers, when deciding which branding strategy to extend to low priced products.

本研究在探討消費者對品牌延伸與品牌授權產品的評估，以及採用品牌延伸與品牌授權策略對原品牌權益的稀釋效果。本研究主要包括三部份：第一，探討「消費者對原品牌的認知與評價」、「產品特徵相似性」、「品牌概念一致性」、「製造商技術移轉能力／被授權台灣廠商之產銷能力」、「延伸／授權產品之產品知識」等變數如何影響消費者對品牌延伸與品牌授權產品的評估；第二，評估品牌延伸與品牌授權對原品牌權益的影響；第三，比較品牌延伸與品牌授權對新產品評估以及原品牌權益影響的差異。 　　經由過去文獻探討，本研究提出品牌延伸與品牌授權評估之一般化數學模型，並簡化模型進行實證研究。在研究設計上，以原品牌產品相對價格、產品適合延伸與授權的程度為依據，採取3 （Nike運動鞋／Cartier珠寶／Nokia手機）×2（適合／不適合延伸與授權之產品類別）×2（品牌延伸／品牌授權）的實驗設計，將研究情境分為12組，分組探討新產品的評估及對原品牌權益之影響，並比較採用品牌延伸與品牌授權時，消費者對延伸與授權產品的評估是否有差異，以及採用品牌延伸與品牌授權對原品牌權益之影響是否有差異。 　　研究結果發現：第一，當消費者對原品牌的認知與評價愈高、產品特徵相似性愈高、品牌概念一致性愈高、製造商技術移轉能力愈強／被授權廠商之產銷能力愈強、延伸／授權產品知識愈缺乏時，消費者對延伸／授權產品有較正面的評估。第二，消費者對延伸與授權產品的接受程度會影響其對原品牌的評價，兩者具正向關係。第三，消費者對延伸產品與授權產品的評估，兩者無顯著差異。第四，消費者對新產品的接受程度對原品牌權益的影響，不會因為採用延伸或授權而有所差異。 　　由研究結果可知，採用品牌延伸與品牌授權策略，消費者對新產品的評估及對原品牌權益的影響並無顯著差異，因此知名品牌的廠商在利用該品牌的品牌權益時，只需以品牌擁有者的角度，選擇總成本最低與效益較高的策略即可。此外，在推出新產品時，要盡量選擇產品特徵相似性高、品牌概念一致性高、目標顧客缺乏主觀產品知識的產品類別，且廠商有能力產銷該產品，才能獲得品牌延伸或品牌授權極大化之原品牌權益。 第一章 緒論 1 第一節 研究動機 1 第二節 研究目的 3 第三節 研究流程 4 第二章 文獻探討 6 第一節 品牌權益 6 第二節 品牌授權 10 第三節 品牌延伸 15 第四節 由消費者角度探討品牌延伸的評估 25 第五節 品牌授權與品牌延伸的比較 41 第六節 來源國形象 45 第三章 研究方法 49 第一節 一般化模型的建立 49 第二節 研究架構 51 第三節 研究假設 53 第四節 研究設計 57 第五節 各項變數的定義與衡量 62 第六節 問卷設計與抽樣方法 65 第七節 資料分析方法 68 第四章 研究結果 69 第一節 樣本結構 69 第二節 信度與效度分析 72 第三節 品牌延伸之分析 75 第四節 品牌授權之分析 97 第五節 品牌延伸與品牌授權之比較 119 第五章 結論與建議 129 第一節 研究結論與討論 129 第二節 研究貢獻 142 第三節 研究限制 147 第四節 後續研究方向 148 參考文獻 150 中文文獻 150 英文文獻 151 附錄 158 附錄一：產品知識與涉入程度之相關分析 158 附錄二：預試問卷 160 附錄三：正式問卷 162 附錄四：延伸與授權的合併分析 171 附錄五：相關係數表 175