<p>  </p> <p>With rising concerns over commercial aviation’s contribution to global carbon emissions, there exists a tremendous pressure on the aviation industry to find advanced technological solutions to reduce its share of CO2 emissions. Single-aisle (or narrowbody) aircraft are the biggest contributors to CO2 emissions by number of operations, insisting a need to reduce / eliminate their aircraft-level fuel consumption as soon as possible. A potential solution for this is to operate fully-electric single-aisle aircraft; however, the limitations of the current (and predicted future) battery technology is forcing the industry to explore hybrid-electric aircraft as a possible mid-term solution.</p> <p>Modeling hybrid-electric aircraft comes with its own challenges due to the presence of two different propulsion sources – gas turbine engines (powered by Jet-A fuel) and electric motors (powered by batteries). Since traditional sizing approaches and legacy sizing tools do not seem to work well for hybrid-electric aircraft, this work presents a “flight-mechanics-based” conceptual sizing tool for hybrid-electric aircraft, set up as a Multidisciplinary Design Optimization (MDO) toolbox. Some of the key features of the sizing tool include concurrently sizing the electric motors and downsizing the gas turbine engines while meeting the one-engine-inoperative (OEI) and top-of-climb constraints, and re-sizing the fuselage to account for the volumetric constraints associated with required batteries.</p> <p>Current work considers a parallel hybrid-electric single-aisle aircraft with a 900 nmi design range, with electric power augmentation (with electric motors operating at full throttle) available only for the takeoff and climb segments when sizing the aircraft. Four hybrid-electric propulsion technology cases are considered, and the resulting hybrid-electric aircraft show 15.0% to 22.5% reduction in fuel burn compared to a Boeing 737-800 aircraft.</p> <p>Another challenge with modeling hybrid-electric aircraft is determining their off-design performance characteristics (considering a different payload or mission range, or both). This work presents an energy management tool – set up as a nonlinear programming optimization problem – to minimize the fuel burn for a payload-range combination by identifying the optimal combination of throttle settings for the gas turbine engines and the electric motors during takeoff, climb, and cruise, along with identifying an optimal flight path. The energy management tool enables fuel savings of at least of 2%, with actual savings ranging from 142.1 lbs to 276.1 lbs per trip for a sample route (LGA–ORD) at a 80% load factor.</p> <p>Although the hybrid-electric aircraft sizing and performance analysis studies show encouraging results about the potential reduction in carbon emissions at an aircraft level, the future fleet-level carbon emissions are not expected to reduce proportionally to these aircraft level emission reductions. This work predicts the fleet-level environmental impacts of future single-aisle parallel hybrid-electric aircraft by modeling the behavior of a profit-seeking airline (with a mixture of conventional all Jet-A fuel burning and hybrid electric aircraft in its fleet) using the Fleet-Level Environmental Evaluation Tool (FLEET). FLEET’s model-based predictions rely upon historically-based information about US-touching airline routes and passenger demand served by US flag-carrier airlines from the Bureau of Transportation Statistics to initiate model-based predictions of future demand, aircraft fleet mix, and aircraft operations. Using the aircraft performance coefficients from the energy management tool to represent the behavior of a single-aisle parallel hybrid-electric aircraft, the FLEET simulation predicts the changes in the fleet-wide carbon emissions due to the introduction of this new aircraft in an airline fleet in the year 2035. By 2055, FLEET results predict that the fleet-wide CO2 emissions with hybrid-electric aircraft in the fleet mix are at least 1.2% lower than the fleet-wide CO2 emissions of a conventional (all Jet-A fuel burning) aircraft-only airline. The rather limited reduction in emissions is an attribute of the reduced range capability and higher operating cost of the hybrid-electric aircraft (relative to a conventional aircraft of similar size). This causes the airline to change the usage, acquisition and retirement of its conventional aircraft when hybrid-electric aircraft are available; this is most notable to serve passenger demand on certain predominantly single-aisle service routes that cannot be flown by the future single-aisle hybrid-electric aircraft. </p>

[ES] Resumen Casi la mitad de la población mundial no tiene acceso a energías como la electricidad o el gas y tienen que utilizar forzosamente biomasa para cocinar, principalmente leña y carbón. Lo que en países desarrollados parece un lujo, en otros muchos es una obligación, ya que no hay otra alternativa. Con un pequeño ahorro en el combustible que utilizan estas estufas de los países sin acceso a otro tipo de energía, el resultado global es extraordinario. En el caso de la República Democrática del Congo más del 80% de la población realiza sus actividades culinarias utilizando biomasa sólida (leña, carbón vegetal, etc.) Para cocinar en las zonas rurales y los extrarradios de las grandes ciudades se utiliza la tradicional estufa de tres piedras TCS-3P y en las zonas urbanas la tradicional estufa de carbón vegetal TCS-C. La principal desventaja de esta práctica es una combustión de baja eficiencia energética, con la consecuencia directa de un consumo excesivo de materias primas como carbón y leña y la correspondiente deforestación. Estos equipos de cocina tradicionales emiten muchos contaminantes perjudiciales para la salud (CO y PM), así como y emisiones que contribuyen al calentamiento global y al cambio climático (CO2 y BC). En este trabajo proponemos modelos para mejorar la eficiencia energética utilizando el modelo tradicional como punto de partida, tal como lo utiliza la comunidad local. Para las poblaciones que viven en condiciones muy críticas y precarias, se han propuesto "insertos de cerámica" que pueden fabricarse y añadirse a las estufas que utilizan en la actualidad. Estos insertos pueden actuar sobre el rendimiento con mejoras del 15%. Se ha propuesto y analizado una segunda mejora basada en la combustión natural de la estufa de carbón ICS-C. El modelo más prometedor es la estufa que utiliza el principio de micro gasificación de la biomasa. Se han diseñado dos modelos de esta estufa, el modelo ICS-G1 con un solo reactor de combustión y el modelo ICS-G2 con dos reactores de combustión, y se han realizado análisis de sostenibilidad con aplicación directa a las comunidades locales. El modelo de micro gasificación propuesto funciona con un suministro de aire forzado con una gran flexibilidad de variación de la potencia de fuego según el tipo de comida a cocinar. El sistema de suministro de aire es provisto por un pequeño motor alimentado por energía solar con autonomía proporcionada por una pequeña batería de litio recargable. Los modelos de gasificación muestran importantes ventajas en comparación con el sistema tradicional, mejor eficiencia energética, al necesitar menos de la mitad de leña que con la tradicional, reducciones drásticas de las emisiones contaminantes y atmosféricas, con un ahorro de emisiones de CO2 en la ciudad de Kinshasa estimadas en 3405 kton/año y una reducción de casi la mitad del tiempo dedicado a la preparación de alimentos. Estas estufas pueden utilizar todo tipo de combustibles sólidos, además del carbón, se realizaron ensayos con combustibles alternativos que provienen de residuos agrícolas (BSW3) de esta forma se limita la presión ejercida sobre los bosques debido al uso de leña para cocinar. Los métodos de prueba utilizados son la prueba de ebullición del agua y la prueba de cocción controlada, con esta última se realiza una preparación de alimentos en un ambiente controlado. Los resultados de estas mejoras se han aplicado a casos reales en Kinshasa y Bandundu. / [CA] Quasi la meitat de la població mundial no té accés a energies com l'electricitat o el gas i han d'utilitzar forçosament biomassa per a cuinar, principalment llenya i carbó. El que en països desenvolupats sembla un luxe, en molts altres és una obligació, ja que no hi ha una altra alternativa. Amb un xicotet estalvi en el combustible que utilitzen aquestes estufes dels països sense accés a una altra mena d'energia, el resultat global és extraordinari. En el cas de la República Democràtica del Congo més del 80% de la població realitza les seues activitats culinàries utilitzant biomassa sòlida (llenya, carbó vegetal, etc.) Per a cuinar en les zones rurals i els extraradis de les grans ciutats s'utilitza la tradicional estufa de tres pedres (TCS-3P) i en les zones urbanes la tradicional estufa de carbó vegetal (TCS-C). El principal desavantatge d'aquesta pràctica és una combustió de baixa eficiència energètica, amb la conseqüència directa d'un consum excessiu de matèries primeres com a carbó i llenya i la corresponent desforestació. Aquests equips de cuina tradicionals emeten molts contaminants perjudicials per a la salut (CO i PM), així com i emissions que contribueixen al calfament global i al canvi climàtic (CO₂ i BC). En aquest treball proposem models per a millorar l'eficiència energètica utilitzant el model tradicional com a punt de partida, tal com ho utilitza la comunitat local. Per a les poblacions que viuen en condicions molt crítiques i precàries, s'han proposat "inserits de ceràmica" que poden fabricar-se i afegir-se a les estufes que utilitzen en l'actualitat. Aquests inserits poden actuar sobre el rendiment amb millores del 15%. S'ha proposat i analitzat una segona millora basada en la combustió natural de l'estufa de carbó ICS-C. El model més prometedor és l'estufa que utilitza el principi de micro gasificació de la biomassa. S'han dissenyat dos models d'aquesta estufa, el model (ICS-G1) amb un sol reactor de combustió i el model (ICS-G2) amb dos reactors de combustió, i s'han realitzat anàlisi de sostenibilitat amb aplicació directa a les comunitats locals. El model de micro gasificació proposat funciona amb un subministrament d'aire forçat amb una gran flexibilitat de variació de la potència de foc segons la mena de menjar a cuinar. El sistema de subministrament d'aire és proveït per un xicotet motor alimentat per energia solar amb autonomia proporcionada per una xicoteta bateria de liti recarregable. Els models de gasificació mostren importants avantatges en comparació amb el sistema tradicional, millor eficiència energètica, en necessitar menys de la meitat de llenya que amb la tradicional, reduccions dràstiques de les emissions contaminants i atmosfèriques, amb un estalvi d'emissions de CO₂ a la ciutat de Kinshasa estimades en 3405 kton/any i una reducció de quasi la meitat del temps dedicat a la preparació d'aliments. Aquestes estufes poden utilitzar tot tipus de combustibles sòlids, a més del carbó, es van realitzar assajos amb combustibles alternatius que provenen de residus agrícoles (BSW3) d'aquesta forma es limita la pressió exercida sobre els boscos a causa de l'ús de llenya per a cuinar. Els mètodes de prova utilitzats són la prova d'ebullició de l'aigua i la prova de cocció controlada, amb aquesta última es realitza una preparació d'aliments en un ambient controlat. Els resultats d'aquestes millores s'han aplicat a casos reals a Kinshasa i Bandundu. / [EN] Abstract Almost half of the world's population does not have access to energy such as electricity or gas and they have to use biomass for cooking, mainly firewood and charcoal. What in developed countries seems a luxury, in many others is an obligation, since there is no other alternative. With a small saving in the fuel used by these stoves in countries without access to other types of energy, the overall result is extraordinary. In the case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, more than 80% of the population carries out their culinary activities using solid biomass (firewood, charcoal, etc.). The traditional stove is used to cook in rural areas and on the outskirts of large cities. three-stone TCS-3P and in urban areas the traditional TCS-C charcoal stove. The main disadvantage of this practice is low energy efficiency combustion, with the direct consequence of excessive consumption of raw materials such as coal and firewood and the corresponding deforestation. These traditional kitchen equipment emits many harmful pollutants for health (CO and PM), as well as emissions that contribute to global warming and climate change (CO2 and BC). In this work we propose models to improve energy efficiency using the traditional model as a starting point, as used by the local community. For populations living in very critical and precarious conditions, "ceramic inserts" have been proposed that can be manufactured and added to the stoves they use today. These inserts can act on performance with improvements of 15%. A second improvement based on the natural combustion of the ICS-C coal stove has been proposed and analyzed. The most promising model is the stove that uses the principle of microgasification of biomass. Two models of this stove have been designed, the ICS-G1 model with a single combustion reactor and the ICS-G2 model with two combustion reactors, and sustainability analyzes have been carried out with direct application to local communities. The proposed micro gasification model works with a forced air supply with great flexibility of variation of the fire power according to the type of food to be cooked. The air supply system is provided by a small motor powered by solar energy with autonomy provided by a small rechargeable lithium battery. The gasification models show important advantages compared to the traditional system, better energy efficiency, since it requires less than half as much firewood than with the traditional system, drastic reductions in pollutant and atmospheric emissions, with savings in CO2 emissions in the city of Kinshasa estimated at 3405 kton / year and a reduction of almost half the time spent on food preparation. These stoves can use all types of solid fuels, in addition to coal, tests were carried out with alternative fuels that come from agricultural residues (BSW3) in this way the pressure exerted on the forests due to the use of firewood for cooking is limited. The test methods used are the water boiling test and the controlled cooking test, with the latter a food preparation is performed in a controlled environment. The results of these improvements have been applied to real cases in Kinshasa and Bandundu. / Mulumba Ilunga, Ó. (2021). Estudio de la optimización de estufas de cocción tradicionales empleadas en países en desarrollo utilizando biomasa leña gasificada (aplicado a la R.D.Congo) [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/163655

In 2018, the shipping industry accounted for 2.89% of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with carbon dioxide (CO2) being the most significant GHG affecting global warming (IMO, 2020). This research aims to introduce a method for selecting propellers at the early design stage to lower CO2 emissions from ships.Traditionally, propeller design assumes that a ship travels in a straight line at a constant speed. However, real-sea conditions involve environmental forces and ship maneuvering, requiring frequent adjustments in speed and direction. These adjustments affect the flow angle and velocity at the propeller, causing it to operate outside its design point and, as a result, reducing its efficiency.To tackle this issue, a MATLAB-based simulation program was developed. Which predicts ship maneuvering motions in 4 degrees of freedom (DOF)—surge, sway, yaw, and roll—using the MMG model. The program applies wave and wind forces, calculates ship motion responses in each iteration, and employs two controllers to manage the rudder and propeller speed, ensuring the ship stays on course and arrives on time.The optimization process is iterative, using simulation outcomes to determine propeller speed, thrust, drift angle, etc., and then selecting an optimized propeller with the program's optimization tool that is more adequate for the operational condition.Building on Trodden's (2014) work, this approach improves maneuvering simulations' accuracy by incorporating ship rolling motion, more realistic wave modeling, and more accurate hydrodynamic coefficients. This offers a closer representation of operational conditions.Case studies comparing this method with the traditional approach to propeller selection have shown the simulation program's precision and its effectiveness in improving propeller open water efficiency by 1.65% and reducing CO2 emissions by 1.47% for a Pure Car Carrier (PCC) ship. The results of the research showed a promising potential for the program to predict ship maneuvering motions in real-sea conditions and optimize the propeller. / År 2018 stod sjöfartsindustrin för 2,89 % av de globala utsläppen av växthusgaser (GHG), där koldioxid (CO2) är den mest betydande växthusgasen som påverkar den globala uppvärmningen (IMO, 2020). Denna forskning syftar till att introducera en metod för val av propellrar i det tidiga designskedet för att sänka CO2-utsläppen från fartyg.Traditionellt antar propellerdesignen att ett fartyg reser i rakt linje med konstant hastighet. Men verkliga sjöförhållanden involverar miljöpåverkan och fartygsmanövreringar, vilket kräver frekventa justeringar av hastighet och riktning. Dessa justeringar påverkar flödesvinkeln och hastigheten vid propellern, vilket gör att den opererar utanför sin designpunkt och som ett resultat minskar dess effektivitet. För att ta itu med denna fråga utvecklades ett MATLAB-baserat simuleringsprogram. Programmet förutsäger fartygsmanövreringsrörelser i 4 frihetsgrader (DOF) - surge, sway, yaw och roll - med användning av MMG-modellen. Programmet tillämpar våg- och vindkrafter, beräknar fartygsrörelsesvar i varje iteration och använder två kontrollanter för att hantera rodret och propellerhastigheten, vilket säkerställer att fartyget håller kursen och ankommer i tid.Optimeringsprocessen är iterativ, använder simuleringsresultat för att bestämma propellerhastighet, dragkraft, drifvinkel osv., och väljer sedan en optimerad propeller med programmets optimeringsverktyg som är mer lämplig för driftsförhållandet. Genom att bygga vidare på Troddens (2014) arbete förbättrar denna metod noggrannheten i manövreringssimuleringar genom att inkludera fartygets rullningsrörelse, mer realistisk vågmodellering och mer exakta hydrodynamiska koefficienter. Detta erbjuder en närmare representation av driftsförhållanden.Fallstudier som jämför denna metod med det traditionella tillvägagångssättet för val av propeller har visat simuleringsprogrammets precision och dess effektivitet i att förbättra propellerns öppenvatteneffektivitet med 1,65 % och minska CO2-utsläppen med 1,47 % för ett Pure Car Carrier (PCC) -fartyg. Forskningens resultat visade en lovande potential för programmet att förutsäga fartygsmanövreringsrörelser under verkliga sjöförhållanden och optimera propellern.

The rise in green-house gases emissions is an overall problem nowadays, in order to achieve the European goals by 2030, several changes are needed. Supermarkets are responsible of 3% of the emissions in Sweden, which makes them a clear target to reduce emissions. By using heat recovery systems, supermarkets can recover part of the heat excesses and use it for ambient or water heating. This can generate a reduction in heat demand, however, to be able to recover heat excess, more electricity is consumed. In the case study conducted, the heat recovery system of a supermarket in Matorp, Sweden has been analyzed. Studying the performance of the system, it has been seen that the COP values are around 2, low values compared with other case studies. The reason for this low performance is because of low discharge pressure, that also leads to a low amount of heat recovered. In the techno economic analysis, the operational costs of the heat recovery system are compared to the ones that a floating condensations system would have had. In the operational costs, both the electricity and the heating costs are considered. The results show that the overall floating condensation costs are only 1.86% higher than the heat recovery costs. This is a small value, but it has to be taken into account that the performance of the system and the heat recovered is low. Finally, in the environmental analysis the CO2 emissions savings by using a HR instead of a FC one is calculated, showing a reduction of 2.3 tons of CO2 per year. / Ökningen av utsläpp av växthusgaser är ett övergripande problem nuförtiden, och för att uppnå de europeiska målen till 2030 behövs flera förändringar. Supermarkets står för 3% av utsläppen i Sverige, vilket gör dem till en tydlig målgrupp för att minska utsläppen. Genom att använda värmeåtervinningssystem kan livsmedelsbutiker återvinna en del av överskottsvärmen och använda den för uppvärmning av lokaler eller vatten. Detta kan minska värmebehovet, men för att kunna återvinna överskottsvärme förbrukas mer elektricitet. I den genomförda fallstudien har värmeåtervinningssystemet i en livsmedelsbutik i Matorp, Sverige analyserats. Genom att studera systemets prestanda har man sett att COP-värdena ligger runt 2, vilket är låga värden jämfört med andra fallstudier. Anledningen till denna låga prestanda är det låga avluftningstrycket, vilket också leder till en låg mängd återvunnen värme. I den tekno-ekonomiska analysen jämförs driftskostnaderna för värmeåtervinningssystemet med de som ett flytande kondensationssystem skulle ha haft. I driftskostnaderna beaktas både el- och uppvärmningskostnader. Resultaten visar att de totala kostnaderna för flytande kondensation endast är 1,86% högre än kostnaderna för värmeåtervinning. Detta är ett litet värde, men det måste beaktas att systemets prestanda och den återvunna värmen är låg. Slutligen, i den miljömässiga analysen beräknas minskningen av CO2-utsläpp genom att använda ett HR istället för ett FCsystem, vilket visar en minskning med 2,3 ton CO2 per år.

Denna studie utvärderar olika scenarier som innebär att ersätta dieselbilar och värmare med elektriska versioner samt använda mer miljövänligt bränsle med hänsyn till CO2-utsläpp och ekonomisk analys av dessa förändringar. Det primära fokuset för denna forskning är att hitta sätt att minska CO2-utsläppen orsakade av vägtransporter och värmare som används av Ramudden AB i Sverige. Detta masterprojekt är inriktat på att minska utsläppen med beaktande av kostnaden för förändringarna. Eftersom källan till utsläpp varierar och är specifik för verksamheten kommer varje företag att ha sina egna lösningar. För att lösa problemet inkluderar tillvägagångssättet att ersätta fordon, särskilt tunga fordon och värmare, med elektriska versioner och övergå till mer miljövänligt bränsle baserat på företagets behov. Denna studie innehåller olika antaganden eftersom teknisk tillgänglighet, teknologiska framsteg och ekonomiska förhållanden inte är konstanta. De viktigaste resultaten visar att användning av HVO som bränsle kommer att producera lägst utsläpp bland de olika scenarier. Men på grund av bränslets tillgänglighet och kostnadsbekymmer skulle kombinationen av elektriska fordon och värmare med ett bättre bränsleval resultera i mer robusta resultat än att bara välja miljövänliga bränsletyper i scenarierna. / This study assesses different scenarios involving replacing diesel vehicles and heaters with electric versions and using more eco-friendly fuel while considering the CO2 emissions and economic analysis of these changes. The primary focus of this research is to find ways to reduce CO2 emissions caused by road transportation and heaters used by Ramudden AB in Sweden. This Master's thesis project is centered on reducing emissions while considering the cost of the changes. Since the source of emissions varies and is specific to the business, each company will have its own solutions. To solve the problem, the approach includes replacing vehicles, particularly heavy-duty vehicles and heaters, with electric versions and adopting eco-friendly fuel behavior based on company guidance. This study contains various assumptions since technical availability, technological developments, and economic conditions are not constant. The key findings reveal that using Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) as fuel will produce the lowest emissions among the various scenarios. However, due to fuel availability and cost concerns, combining electric vehicles and heaters with a better fuel choice would result in more robust results than just opting for eco-friendlier fuel types in the scenarios.

本文主旨在於透過國內消費重新估算臺灣二氧化碳排放量。蓋全球各區域二氧化碳排放量的變動，透過貿易分工而移轉，若只用一國國內生產面估算二氧化碳的排放量，將忽略了各國實際消費的二氧化碳排放量，並使《京都議定書》防止全球暖化的原意大打折扣。因為已開發國家為了達到氣體減量政策的目標，可將二氧化碳排放密集的產業遷移至低度開發國家，溫室氣體的排放只是由締約國轉移到非締約國而已。反之，若以消費面二氧化碳排放量作為二氧化碳減量之依據，則能更有效地提供減量誘因，促進減量技術之發展或誘導節約用能與需求消費。爰此，本文先以透過產業關聯模型調整消費面的臺灣二氧化碳排放量估算值，並以排放減量的觀點分析產業部門之進出口來源國，最後透過多目標規劃模型，進行二氧化碳減量之政策分析，並提出產業發展建議。 / This paper aims at estimating the CO2 emissions of Taiwan from the perspective of domestic consumption side. Since the developed countries would achieve the emission reduction goal by transferring their emission-intensive industries form their lands to the developing countries, we would neglect the true CO2 emissions of nations if we only estimate their CO2 emissions from the perspective of domestic production side, therefore reduce the significance of the Kyoto Protocol, which aims at reducing emissions. On the contrary, If we estimate the CO2 emissions of nations through the consumption side, we can provide the incentives for emission reduction more effectively, prompting the development of the technology of emission reduction or inducing consumers to conserve the use of energy. Consequently, this paper first estimates the CO2 emissions of Taiwan from the perspective of domestic consumption side through an input-output model, then estimates the import and export emissions of industry sectors, finally it analyzes the policies for CO2 emission reduction by a multi-objective programming model and provides suggestions for the development of industries.

La thèse se concentre sur le secteur non-électrique agrégé couvert par le SCEQE. La contribution du secteur non-électrique aux variations des émissions de CO2 pendant les deux premières phases du marché (2005-2012), tant du point de vue de la demande finale que de celui de l’offre, est comparée à celle du secteur électrique. Les implications du mode d’allocation gratuite de quotas au secteur non-électrique durant la troisième phase du marché (2013-2020) sont examinées, ce qui constitue l’une des premières évaluations approfondies des benchmarks institués en Phase 3. Il est montré que, tant du point de vue de la demande finale que de celui de l’offre, le secteur non-électrique, du fait de ses interdépendances et de son niveau d’activité, a davantage contribué aux variations des émissions de CO2 que ne l’a fait le secteur électrique, au cours la période 2005-2012. Il est également montré que, en dépit de ses effets redistributifs, le mode d’allocation gratuite par benchmarks tel qu’il a été défini, demeure imparfait et n’est ainsi pas à la hauteur du rôle central du secteur non-électrique dans le fonctionnement du marché. / The thesis focuses on the aggregated non-power sector covered under the EU ETS. First, the non-power sector contribution to CO2 emissions changes in the first two phases of the Scheme (2005-2012), both from a final demand perspective and a supply perspective, is compared to that of the power sector at first. Then, the implications of the non-power sector specific free allocation methodology in the third phase of the Scheme (2013-2020) are scrutinized, which constitutes one of the first thorough assessment of Phase 3 benchmarking. It is showed that both from a final demand perspective and a supply perspective, the non-power sector, through its interrelated character and its activity levels, has contributed to changes in EU ETS CO2 emissions more than the power sector did, over the 2005-2012 period. It is also showed that, despite its free allocation redistribution effects, benchmark-based Phase 3 free allocation remains flawed and may benefit from further improvements to be up to the central role of the non-power sector in the EU ETS dynamics.

Reservatórios de usinas hidrelétricas instalados em regiões tropicais podem representar contribuição significativa para as emissões de gases efeito estufa (GEEs) para a atmosfera. Neste contexto, é relevante desenvolver métodos para avaliação da emissão de CH4 e CO2 causada pela instalação desses empreendimentos hidrelétricos. A UHE Belo Monte no Rio Xingu (leste da Amazônia) é a terceira maior usina hidrelétrica em potencial de geração de energia do mundo. A estimativa das emissões de GEEs associadas à UHE Belo Monte é exemplo de alta relevância que pode servir de base para futuros empreendimentos previstos para serem construídos na região amazônica. Neste estudo, foram realizados experimentos de incubação de solos e de inundação de testemunho de solos das áreas dos reservatórios da UHE Belo Monte. Estes experimentos auxiliaram na compreensão da resposta do fluxo de CH4 e CO2 tanto na resolução vertical (e.g. profundidade), quanto na resolução horizontal (e.g. contexto fisiográfico). Os resultados demonstraram alta produção de CH4 e CO2 na camada superior (10 cm), a qual apresenta conteúdo orgânico mais elevado. O solo de floresta de igapó apresentou a maior taxa potencial de produção de CH4 (15,59 nmol CH4 g-1 h-1), enquanto que o solo de pasto apresentou a maior taxa de produção de CO2 (34,96 nmol CO2 g-1 h-1). As emissões médias de CH4 e CO2 para os reservatórios da UHE Belo Monte foram, respectivamente, iguais a 54 ± 60 mmol CH4 m-2d-1 e 330 ± 149 mmol CO2 m-2 d-1. Esses resultados indicam incremento no fluxo de CH4 e CO2 em relação ao fluxo natural destes gases no Rio Xingu medido antes da instalação da UHE Belo Monte. Isto permite computar as emissões de CH4 e CO2 na energia gerada para a avaliação do custo-benefício do empreendimento hidrelétrico, em termos de emissões de CH4 e CO2 para a atmosfera. Além disso, foram realizadas projeções de emissões de carbono ao longo de 100 anos de operação da UHE Belo Monte e a elaboração de modelo do balanço de massa de carbono (\"C budget\") para os reservatórios da UHE Belo Monte. Estimou-se que o impacto em emissões líquidas do empreendimento ocasionaria emissões entre 2,3 e 15,1 Tg C para o período de 100 anos. Dessa forma, espera-se que este estudo sirva de base para avaliar casos análogos, já que o plano de expansão da matriz energética brasileira considera a instalação de outras usinas hidrelétricas em rios do leste amazônico / Hydroelectric reservoirs installed in tropical regions can represent a significant contribution to greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) to the atmosphere. In this context, it is relevant to develop methods to evaluate CH4 and CO2 emissions caused by the installation of hydroelectric reservoirs. The Belo Monte hydroelectric plant in Xingu River (eastern Amazon) is the third largest hydroelectric plant in the world in terms of installed capacity and is an example of high relevance that can serve as a study case to evaluate future hydroelectric projects planned to be built in the Amazon region. In this study, soil incubation and soil flooding experiments using samples from the Belo Monte reservoir areas were performed to understand the response of the CH4 and CO2 fluxes under impounding of the Xingu River, considering both vertical (e.g. depth) and horizontal resolution (e.g. physiographic context). The results showed a high production of CH4 and CO2 in the top layer (10 cm) of soils, due to higher organic content. The igapó forest soil presented the highest potential production rate of CH4 (15.59 nmol CH4 g -1 h -1), while pasture soil presented the highest CO2 production rate (34.96 nmol CO2 g -1 h-1). The mean fluxes of CH4 and CO2 from Belo Monte reservoirs were respectively 54.05 ± 60.73 mmol CH4 m-2 d-1 and 330.76 ± 149.83 mmol CO2 m-2 d-1. These results indicate significant increase in the CH4 and CO2 fluxes compared to the natural fluxes of CH4 and CO2 from the Xingu River before damming for construction of the Belo Monte reservoirs. This allows to calculate GHGs emissions associated with the energy generated by the Belo Monte hydroelectric plant in the first years of operation and its cost-benefit evaluation in terms of carbon emissions. In addition, carbon emission projections for the next 100 years were carried out and a model for carbon mass balance (CH4 and CO2 budget) was elaborated for the Belo Monte reservoirs. It was estimated that the net emissions of the Belo Monte reservoirs would vary from 2.3 to 15.1 Tg C for a period of 100 years. Thus, this study is expected to serve as a basis to evaluate similar cases, as the plan of expansion of Brazilian energy plans matrix considers the installation of other hydroelectric plants in rivers of eastern Amazon.

Godstransporter ökar i takt med att utrikeshandeln växer, vilket bidrar till utsläpp av växthusgaser. Hållbar utveckling och miljö är viktiga faktorer i dagens samhälle vilket gör att det ställs krav på nya och innovativa transportlösningar. Ett alternativ att bemöta dessa krav är genom högkapacitetstranporter, som i dagsläget testas, utförs och forskas kring frekvent i Sverige. Högkapacitetstransport avser lastbilsfordon som är längre och/eller tyngre än dagens konventionella lastbil som har fått dispens att trafikera vissa zoner på det svenska vägnätet. Denna studie baseras på att utvärdera två intermodala transportlösningar för transport av gods på sträckan mellan Göteborgs hamn och Viared, Borås. Den ena transportlösningen baseras på högkapacitetstransport och den andra baseras på en järnvägsbaserad transportlösning. De alternativa transportlösningarna utvärderas med avseende på effektivitet omfattande transportkostnad, flexibilitet och tid samt miljöpåverkan omfattande koldioxidutsläpp genom en fallstudie.Slutsatserna har resulterat i att högkapacitetstransport genererar en högre transporteffektivitet jämfört med dagens dragbil som trafikerar den utpekade vägsträckan i fallstudien. I brist på material har inga konkreta kostnader kunnat beräknats för de olika transportlösningarna. Däremot kunde en slutsats dras kring att de alternativa transportlösningarna ej bör uppgå till en högre kostnad än vad dagens transportlösning genererar. Ur miljösynpunkt har koldioxidutsläpp för de olika transportlösningarna beräknats. Implementeras hela vägsträckan med högkapacitetstransport har resultatet gällande koldioxidutsläpp genererat i en minskning med 30,6 procent jämfört med dagens dragbil. Däremot visade studien att järnvägstransporten vinner miljömässiga fördelar då den jämfört med dragbilen som trafikerar vägsträckan idag reducerar utsläppen med 80,4 procent. Dock visar koldioxidutsläppet i den intermodala järnvägslösningen att vägtransporterna bidrar med 98 procent av utsläppen.Denna studie väger för- och nackdelar gentemot varandra för en implementering av högkapacitetstransport. Högkapacitetstransporten jämförs även gentemot järnvägens för- och nackdelar vid transport av containergods. Studien bidrar dessutom till att stärka och reflektera över tidigare publicerade studier som finns inom ämnet. / Freight transport increases as foreign trade grows, which contributes to greenhouse gas emission. Sustainable development and the environment are important factors in today's society, which imposes demands on new and innovative transport solutions. One way of meeting these demands is through high capacity transports, which are currently being tested, performed and researched frequently in Sweden. High capacity transport refers to truck vehicles that are longer and/or heavier than today's conventional truck that has been given the dispensation to traffic certain areas on the Swedish road network. This study is based on evaluating two intermodal transport solutions for the carriage of goods on the route between Port of Gothenburg and Viared, Borås. One transport solution is based on high capacity transport and the other is based on a rail-based transport solution. Through a case study, the alternative transport solutions are evaluated based on efficiency, including transportation costs, flexibility and time, and the environmental impact including CO2 emissions.The conclusions have resulted in high capacity transport generating a higher transport efficiency compared with today's truck that operates the designated road distance in the case study. In lack of material, no concrete costs have been calculated for the various transport solutions. On the other hand, a conclusion could be drawn that alternative transport solutions should not be at a higher cost than today's transport solution results in. From an environmental point of view, CO2 emissions for the various transport solutions have been calculated. Implementing the entire road haulage with high capacity transport has resulted in a reduction of CO2 emissions by 30,6 percent compared to the current truck. On the other hand, the study showed that rail transport wins environmental benefits, as compared to the truck that carries the route today, emissions reduce by 80,4 percent. However, CO2 emissions in the intermodal railroad solution show that road transport contributes 98 percent of emissions.This study weighs strengths and weaknesses towards each other for the implementation of high capacity transport on the designated route. High capacity transport is also set against the railroad with pros and cons of transporting container goods. The study also contributes to strengthening and reflecting the theory from previously published studies within the subject.

A maior parte das emissões de CO2 do concreto origina-se na produção do cimento. A estratégia tradicional de minimização da pegada de CO2 tem privilegiado o grau de substituição do clínquer. O trabalho examina o impacto dessa estratégia e também a influência da escolha do fornecedor de cimento sob a ótica de sua matriz energética, a variação do consumo de cimento para concretos de mesma resistência e do desvio padrão do processo produtivo de acordo com o controle do processo de produção do concreto. O método de trabalho inclui dados de revisão bibliográfica, normalização técnica e dados de central de concreto. A estratégia tradicional de escolha do tipo de cimento baseando-se em seu teor de clínquer mostra-se incompleta, pois há uma grande variação e sobreposição dos teores de clínquer permitidos nas normas técnicas brasileiras. No momento atual estima-se que a indústria cimenteira nacional utilize praticamente toda a escória de alto forno gerada no país e a quase totalidade das cinzas de melhor qualidade. Dessa forma, aumentando a demanda de cimento, a produção de clínquer aumenta, e o teor de adições no clínquer diminui dentro das extensas faixas permitidas pelas normas técnicas. Nesse cenário, a seleção de um tipo de cimento em detrimento de outro pode reduzir o impacto de uma obra específica, embora não traga necessariamente benefícios ambientais para o país. A troca da matriz energética por carvão vegetal de madeira de florestas plantadas pode minimizar a parcela de emissões provenientes de combustíveis do cimento, diminuindo a emissão de 350 kg para 10 kg de CO2 por tonelada de clínquer produzida. A eficiência do processo de formulação do concreto apresenta grande potencial para diminuir a quantidade de cimento utilizada no concreto, diminuindo, assim, as emissões totais de CO2 do concreto. Os dados levantados apontam uma variação de consumo de cimento de mais de 100% para concretos de mesma resistência. A influência do desvio padrão das condições de produção apresenta potencial menor para a diminuição das emissões, diminuindo no máximo 13% o consumo de cimento no concreto. A combinação das quatro estratégias estudadas demonstra a complexidade da emissão do concreto e o grande potencial para mitigar suas emissões de CO2. A necessidade de informações específicas sobre a emissão dos cimentos, seu teor de clínquer e sua matriz energética, uma técnica de dosagem otimizada e um controle das condições de produção do concreto demonstram que há, tanto para fornecedores de matérias primas do concreto quanto para os usuários e produtores do concreto, muito a ser feito para minimizar as emissões deste material tão consumido. / Most of concretes CO2 emissions originate from cement production. The traditional strategy for minimizing the CO2 footprint of concrete has favored the degree of clinker replacement. This paper examines the impact of this strategy and also the influence of the choice of the cement supplier based on the fuel composition in cement production, the variation of cement usage in concretes of the same strength and the standard deviation of the production process of concrete based on the control of its production process. The method of work uses data from literature, technical standards and data from a concrete central. The traditional strategy of the choice of cement type based on its clinker content is insufficient due to the extensive and overlapping clinker content range of different cement types allowed in Brazilian technical standards. At the present time, it is estimated that the cement industry utilizes all of the blast furnace slag generated in the country and nearly all quality fly ash. Consequently, if there is an increase in the demand for cement, there is an increase in clinker production, and the rate of additions to the clinker decreases, respecting the extensive limits permitted by technical standards. In this scenario, the selection of blast furnace slag cement and fly ash cement does not necessarily offer environmental benefits to the country as a whole and does not demonstrate a global impact, despite the possibility of benefiting specific construction sites. The substitution of the fuel mix for coal from planted forest wood can lower the portion of cement emissions due to fuel burning from 350 kg to 10 kg of CO2 per tonne of clinker produced. The efficiency of the concrete mix formulation shows great potential to lower the amount of cement usage in concrete, thus lowering the total CO2 emissions of concrete. The data presented point to a variation of more than 100% of cement content in concretes of the same strength. The influence of the standard deviation of the production process shows smaller impact on lowering concrete CO2 emissions shows that there is a maximum potential of 13% of lowering cement content in concrete. The combination of the four strategies studied demonstrates the complexity of concretes emissions and the great potential for mitigating its CO2 emissions. The need for information on cements specific emissions, its clinker content and fuel mix, the concrete mix formulation and the variability of the production process of concrete show that there is, for concrete raw material suppliers as well as concrete producers and users, a lot to be done to minimize the emissions of this widely consumed material.