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Cette étude montre comment Albert Camus et Tawfik Al-Hakim, deux dramaturges appartenant à deux cultures différentes, se sont servi, chacun à sa manière, de la parole, pour défendre la liberté dans leurs théâtres. La thèse comprend quatre parties. Partant d'un panorama biographique qui permettra de situer les deux dramaturges dans le contexte social et littéraire de leur temps, nous passerons, dans la deuxième partie, à une analyse du thème de la liberté dans le corpus. A travers une analyse textuelle des pièces traitées, nous découvrirons, dans la troisième partie, comment la parole a été instituée en système de tyrannie. En dénonçant une telle stratégie des régimes totalitaires, les deux dramaturges ont défendu la liberté de parole délibérément écrasée par les tyrans de tous les temps. Nous réfléchirons enfin sur le double jeu de la parole dans les deux théâtres. En y examinant le cas des personnages-prisonniers, nous mettrons en évidence comment la parole peut être aussi bien un moyen de liberté qu'un moyen d'enfermement. Se servir des ressources du théâtre pour être la voix des sans-voix ; plaider en faveur de tous les opprimés sur la terre pour leur rendre la justice et la liberté qu'ils ont perdues, c'est le souci commun de Camus et d'Al-Hakim. / This study shows how Albert Camus and Tawfik Al-Hakim, two playwrights belonging to two different cultures, used speech, each to his manner, to defend freedom in their theatres. The thesis includes four parties. Starting with a biographical panorama that will allow situating the two playwrights in their social and literary time, we shall pass, in the second party, to an analysis of the theme of the freedom in the corpus. Through a textual analysis of studied plays, we shall discover, in the third party, how speech was instituted in totalitarian systems. By a denouncing such strategy of totalitarian regimes, the two playwrights defended the freedom of speech crushed by the tyrants of all the times. We shall reflect finally on the double set of speech in the two theatres. By examining the case of the figures-prisoners, we shall show how speech can be both a means of freedom that one way of confinement. Use the resources of the theater to be the voice of the voiceless, to plead in favor of all the oppressed on the earth to do them justice and freedom that they have lost, is the common concern of Camus and Al-Hakim.

Cette étude tente d’apporter une analyse comparée et détaillée des réflexions d’Albert Camus et d’Arthur Koestler ayant un rapport avec cette volonté de défendre l’homme oppressé. Notre apport littéraire à travers cette analyse est de travailler en profondeur sur les textes de Koestler, d’en dégager les particularités lexiques et stylistiques, de les rapprocher de celles de Camus, d’en tirer une analyse subtile et minutieuse de la pensée de l’auteur hongrois, déplorablement méconnu, et de montrer comment deux intellectuels d’origines différentes et de langues d’expression différentes peuvent mener un même combat, avoir les mêmes influences littéraires, les mêmes « ennemis », les mêmes doutes et la même passion. / This study tries to bring a comparative and detailed analysis of the reflections of Albert Camus and Arthur Koestler having a relation with this will to defend the oppressed man. Our literary contribution through this analysis is to work in depth on Koestler 's texts, to identify its lexical and stylistic peculiarities, to bring them closer to those of Camus, to draw from them a subtle and minute analysis of the thought of the " A Hungarian author, deplorably misunderstood, and to show how two intellectuals of different origins and different languages of expression can lead the same struggle, have the same literary influences, the same "enemies", the same doubts and the same passion.

LÉtranger e Le Mythe de Sisyphe fazem parte do que Camus nomeou de ciclo do absurdo,no qual se unem sob esse mesmo tema a escrita literária e a reflexão filosófica. O absurdo é essencialmente definido como um divórcio do homem com o mundo, mas encontramos no percurso filosófico do autor uma noção anterior a essa, as núpcias. A análise de todos os textos anteriores ao ciclo do absurdo nos mostra, porém, que núpcias e absurdo sempre fizeram parte da reflexão camusiana. Essas duas noções opostas sempre conviveram juntas, formando o que chamamos de o avesso e o direito, ideia que se reflete no título da primeira recolha de ensaios do autor. O objetivo dessa dissertação é, através de todos os escritos anteriores à narrativa, definir o avesso e o direito como um tema fundamental para a escritura de LÉtranger, onde se conjugam as núpcias e o absurdo, a literatura e a filosofia. / LÉtranger and Le Myth de Sisyphe make part of what Camus named as the absurd cycle, where the literary writing and the philosophical reflection are joined together under the same theme. The absurd is essentially definite as a divorce of man with the world, but we meet in the authors philosophical course a previous notion to it, the nuptials. The analysis of all former texts to the absurd cycle, show us, nevertheless, that nuptials and absurd always were part of camusian reflection. These two opposite notions always lived together, shaping what we call the wrong side and the right side, the title of the authors first reunion of essays. The purpose of this dissertation is, through the all writings written before the narrative, definite the wrong side and the right side as a fundamental theme to the scripture of LÉtranger, where the nuptials and the absurd, the literature and philosophy are joined together.

Submitted by Geandra Rodrigues (geandrar@gmail.com) on 2018-05-17T12:55:38Z No. of bitstreams: 1 rafaeldecastrolins.pdf: 1654542 bytes, checksum: 80d0563141064395821f3394ca631d28 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2018-05-22T13:58:43Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 rafaeldecastrolins.pdf: 1654542 bytes, checksum: 80d0563141064395821f3394ca631d28 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-05-22T13:58:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 rafaeldecastrolins.pdf: 1654542 bytes, checksum: 80d0563141064395821f3394ca631d28 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-22 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O trabalho de pesquisa concentrou-se na análise de seletas obras do literato franco-argelino Albert Camus, com vistas no trato camusiano ao que tange o imaginário religioso cristão do século XX. Inicialmente, fez-se uma passagem analítica pelo Teatro do Absurdo – as peças Calígula e O Equívoco – a fim de retratar a concepção camusiana da divindade cristã sob o prisma da negação. O passo seguinte concentrou-se sobre o romance A Peste, à procura da percepção camusiana acerca da santidade sem Deus. No Teatro do Absurdo Deus fora representado em termos de silêncio, instituindo assim uma forma peculiar de escatologia negativa. No romance A Peste o silêncio de Deus precede e impele à santidade sem Deus. Nesse sentido, a pesquisa pôde realçar o itinerário lítero-dramático a partir do silêncio de Deus à santidade sem Deus. Os conceitos basilares do pensamento camusiano, Absurdo e Revolta, foram delimitados no que diz respeito à religião cristã e reduzidos, portanto, aos aspectos do silêncio e da santidade. Ao retratá-la em termos de opacidade, a Pergunta Deus fora abandonada no Teatro do Absurdo para dar lugar à pergunta pela santidade sem Deus em A Peste. Sob a influência da Guerra, Camus esboçou um mundo em ocaso, regido por forças trágicas, e acima dele um Deus omisso que se cala diante do espetáculo da morte. Não obstante, para Camus a Revolta é o único resultado lógico da constatação do Absurdo, por isso A Peste traduz-se em seguir moralmente em oposição à miséria e à morte, sem esperar de Deus senão o seu silêncio. Neste rompante de resistência à morte desponta o personagem tipo do romance, o Santo sem Deus. Por último fitou-se a moral do Santo sem Deus. Provida de compaixão e destituída de esperanças, a moral do Santo camusiano nasce da experiência sensível com o sofrimento, ela se sustém essencialmente sobre o horror à morte e o escândalo inexpiável na presença do mal. / The research paper was concentrated at the analysis of selected works of Albert Camus, a litter French-Algerian, seen at the treaty to the 20th century Christian religious imaginary. At the first hand, it was made an analytical passage at the Theater of the Absurd – the dramas Caligula and The Misunderstanding – in order to report the camusian conception of the Christian divinity. Under the denial‘s prism. At the second hand, it was concentrated on the novel The Plague, looking for the camusian perception about holiness without God. At the Theater of the Absurd, God was represented in silence terms. Thus, constituting a peculiar form of negative eschatology. At the novel The Plague, the God‘s silence precedes and impels holiness without God. In this sense, the research could focus on the litter-dramatic itinerary by God‘s silence to the holiness without God. The basic concepts of camusian thought, Absurd and Revolt, were delimited. Concerning to the Christian religion and reduced, thus, to the silence and holiness aspects. Retracting in the opacity terms, The God Question, were left on the Theater of the Absurd to give a place to the question about holiness with no God in The Plague. Under war‘s influence, Camus outlined a world in decay, governed by tragic force, and above it there was a missing God who stay in silence in front of the death spectacle. Despite, for Camus the Revolt is the only logic result of Absurd‘s confirmation, because of it, The Plague translate it by following morally in opposition to misery and death, without waiting God than him silence. In this outburst death‘s resistance rises the typical novel character, the holy without God. At the end, the moral in holy without God was focused. It was provided by compassion and hope deprived, the camusian holy was born by the sensible experience with suffering, it is held, essentially, by the horror of death and inexpiable scandal in the madness presence.

I denna uppsats har kontaktytorna mellan det sublima och det absurda undersökts utifrån hur Lyotard och Camus definierar respektive begrepp. Uppsatsen har utgått från en forskningssituation där få jämförelser mellan dessa begrepp – som i sig kan te sig undflyende och vaga – verkar finnas. Syftet med undersökningen har således varit att låta nya perspektiv på de båda begreppen träda fram genom deras relation till varandra. Utifrån jämförelsen mellan det sublima och det absurda kan det konstateras att det tycks finnas klara kontaktytor mellan begreppen. Dessa kontaktytor har yttrat sig genom att begreppen delar likheter i följande avseenden: (1) de är båda negativa begrepp, (2) de innefattar liknande kritik mot rationalism, (3) båda begreppen innefattar moment av en för subjektet inledande känsla av hämmande som övergår i en stärkande känsla, (4) de påvisar distansen mellan subjektet och världen, (5) båda innefattar liknande anspråk på konsten som ett slags materialiserad form av deras egen innebörd. Utöver dessa direkta kopplingar uppmärksammades att det Camus kort beskriver som ”känslan av det absurda” kan ses som analogt med det sublima, vilket skulle kunna innebära att den absurda insikten, såsom Camus beskriver den är direkt kopplad till en sublim känsla. Alla dessa aspekter hänger förvisso samman, men det intressanta är att Lyotard och Camus skriver om dem på liknande vis i sina respektive texter. Relationen mellan begreppen kan således uttydas inte endast i generella, utan i specifika likheter.

This essay is an attempt to understand what Albert Camus philosophy of the absurd entails, using the figure of Sisyphus in The myth of Sisyphus as a reference. We all face the absurd: the discordance that results from the confrontation of the human longing for the absolute with the worlds non-absolute character. Camus illustrates this condition with Sisyphus among other “absurd heroes”. But what does he want to tell us about our existence with this metaphor? Is life a punishment? Or is it completely indifferent as Sisyphus improbable happiness might indicate? And how can Sisyphus represent us although he is not mortal in the original myth? In order to answer these questions, I investigate the following aspects of the absurd in this essay: what it tells us about the human condition or even the human nature; if it entails a life in indifference; how it is related to finitude; and finally in which sense Sisyphus is an adequate analogy for our existence. My analysis is a combination of an in-depth study of Camus book and a critical discussion of the commentaries of Robert C. Solomon, Arnaud Corbic, and Avi Sagi on The myth of Sisyphus. I conclude that the image of Sisyphus contains some inconsistencies, but that its main goal is to illustrate the constant act of balance, the conscious effort that never reaches its goal which life is for Camus. Such a life does however not need to be dark or indifferent, but rather on the contrary is an authentic life in knowledge of one’s boundaries and possibilities, a life where finitude highlights the value of what it restrains, a life worth living despite its difficulties. While arguing for this reading of Camus, I also attempt to show how this philosophy of the absurd already contains key elements of an ethical position which according to a common view on Camus only appears in his later works.

Partie créative : La chambre Un homme se réveille dans une chambre qui n'est pas la sienne. On l'a enfermé, mais il ignore pour quelle raison. Tout ce qu'il sait, c'est qu'il a été condamné à écrire. Pour tout contact, il reçoit les visites d'une femme qui entre à l'heure des repas pour lui délivrer sa pitance. À travers les discussions avec cette dernière ainsi que des retours en arrière sur sa jeunesse et sur les moments qui ont précédé son incarcération, il tentera de mettre au jour les raisons de son enfermement. / Partie reflexive : La chambre : entre littérature et philosophie La partie reflexive de ce mémoire sera guidée par l'interrogation suivante : quelle différence y a-t-il entre les langages littéraire et philosophique ? Pour y répondre, nous procéderons à une comparaison de deux oeuvres d'Albert Camus : L'étranger et Le Mythe de Sisyphe. Nous partirons de l'hypothèse de Sartre, laquelle stipule que ces deux oeuvres tiennent le même propos sur l'homme absurde, la première exprimant ce propos de façon littéraire tandis que la seconde l'exprimerait de façon philosophique. Notre comparaison nous mènera à dégager des caractéristiques propres à chacun des deux langages, ce qui nous permettra par la suite de réfléchir à la partie créative du présent mémoire, plus précisément de poser la question suivante : quelle est la valeur littéraire - et non philosophique - de La chambre ?

La notion d'équilibre est, pourrait-on dire, quasi intrinsèque à la pensée de Camus; dans son univers, Némésis en est la gardienne. Or, cette idée d'équilibre me semble faire cruellement défaut à l'époque qui est la nôtre, au sens d'écart entre différents statuts sociaux, mais aussi au sens d'inconséquence, d'inadéquation entre, par exemple, croyances et faits, entre dires et gestes, pensées et actions. Nos sociétés occidentales, trop souvent fondées sur des rapports de force, constituent un théâtre tout indiqué pour les faux-semblants, les trompe-l'oeil et autres attitudes ostentatoires. Évidemment de tels clivages ne constituent pas une nouveauté historique. Or, j'ai compris à travers Camus que ces maux de société sont exacerbés par les séparations qu'entraîne un mode de vie déséquilibré, c'est-à-dire tenté par la perfection ou obnubilé par le pouvoir, que cette vie soit régie par le réel ou gouvernée par l'idéel. Car, et c'est ce que je comprends dans L'envers et l'endroit et L'exil et le royaume, idéel et réel sont deux absolus qui poussent ceux et celles qui y obéissent à délimiter les espaces, à ériger des murs, réels ou imaginaires, pour éloigner, rejeter, voire nier, ce qui ne leur semble pas désirable. Pour que la vie prenne forme, il faut donc rompre avec ces tentations d'absolu, réunir l'idéel et le réel, en essayant non pas de les fusionner, mais bien de les équilibrer, sans quoi on se condamne à la facilité, à l'illusion, à ce que Camus appelle une vie par procuration. C'est en tout cas ce que me donnent à lire les deux textes de Camus que j'ai retenus, sorte de plaidoyers en faveur de cette irréductible dualité unissant l'un et l'autre, relation certes désespérante par les conflits qu'elle suscite, mais seule garante de véritable progrès.

I hope this scientific essay can shed som light over how guilt kan appear at a school, primarily for those working as fritidslärare. Fritidslärare come often in close contact with special needs children.In the story I shall recount a case where I have taken the roll of carer and helping an extroverted pupil through his schoolday. He spends most of his time outside the classrum and is mostly with a special needs teacher. Generally his day is filled with rewards and punishment; methods that I find myself uncomfortable with. On one of these schooldays I find myself giving up on him. I see myself ignoring him, taking out my cell phone while he watches a film on the computer. In this situation I feel guilt. Do I have a bad moral standard or am I just acting in accordance with the situation? The question of how I deal with this guilt and what shape the guilt takes are two of the questions I pose to myself. I have made use of the Algerian author and philosopher Albert Camus and his theory of the absurd and the lack of freedom in our lives and how the absurd always stands in the way of total freedom. If we are aware of its existence then we can live with it and minimize its effect upon us. I will also refer to his novel The Fall (2007) in which the protagonist has long managed to avoid guilt and judgement. He comes to feel discomfort after an incident that he identifies as feelings of guilt. The guilt can be both collective and individual. In my text I shall concentrate on individual guilt. I, as an individual teacher, have my version of the truth whilst those around me have another. What does this imply? I also treat the mechanisms of control within the school that manifest themselves through reward and punishment.