No / In the November issue (2001) of Neuroscience Letters, Holmin et al. (Neurosci. Lett. 314 (2001) 151) reported that the synthesis of the intermediate filament protein nestin was upregulated by potassium-induced depolarization in the rat cortex. In this letter, we provide supplementary evidence that repeated cortical spreading depression elicited by potassium induces a delayed upregulation of nestin. However, we argue against the authors' conclusion, Nestin expression was N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor dependent since dizocilpine (MK-801) treatment abolished the response because spreading depression itself is very sensitive to NMDA-receptor block, and the drug treatment was initiated prior to potassium application to the cortex in Holmin et al.'s study.

Characterizing the cortical representation of sweet and bitter tastes in awake behaving mice has been challenging due to the sheltered location of the gustatory cortex in the insula, which restricts optical and electrophysiological recordings, and the various functions of the insula, complicating conclusions about taste representation. To overcome these obstacles, we developed a brain-wide imaging paradigm that combines functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with optogenetic and taste receptor knock-out manipulations in mice. This approach allowed us the study the gustatopic map in awake, behaving mice, showing that sweet and bitter tastes are topographically segregated along the rostro-caudal axis of the gustatory cortex, with sweet represented rostrally and bitter caudally. Notably, this map is subject to plasticity following conditioned taste aversion (CTA) for sweet stimuli, resulting in a posterior shift of the sweet taste field—a phenomenon reversible after CTA extinction.

INTRODUÇÃO: O transtorno afetivo bipolar (TAB) e o transtorno obsessivocompulsivo (TOC) estão entre as dez condições médicas mais incapacitantes. No entanto, suas bases neurobiológicas são ainda desconhecidas. Os estudos postmortem podem dar uma boa contribuição para o entendimento da fisiopatologia desses transtornos, pois permitem a comparação das alterações celulares, citoarquitetônicas e moleculares com as manifestações clínicas, além de auxiliarem numa melhor compreensão dos achados dos estudos de neuroimagem. OBJETIVOS: Comparar a densidade neuronal, volume e número total de neurônios do córtex orbitofrontal (COF) e suas sub-regiões: antero-medial (AM), médio-orbitofrontal (MO) e antero-lateral (AL) entre casos psiquiátricos e controles; Verificar se há diferenças de densidade neuronal, volume e número total de neurônios do COF entre os casos de TAB e casos de TOC e controles. MÉTODOS E CASUÍSTICA: 17 encéfalos de indivíduos acima de 50 anos foram coletados, diagnosticados e submetidos a análises estereológicas, sendo três indivíduos acometidos por TAB, sete indivíduos acometidos por TOC e sete controles saudáveis pareados por idade, gênero e hemisfério cerebral analisado. Um hemisfério foi fixado por perfusão com formalina 20% e processado para estudos neuroestereológicos, enquanto o outro teve as 45 regiões de interesse dissecadas e congeladas a -80ºC para futuros estudos moleculares. RESULTADOS: O COF e suas sub-regiões apresentaram menor densidade neuronal no grupo total de casos vs. controles (p < 0,05). No entanto, não houve diferença em relação ao volume. A subregião MO apresentou um número menor de neurônios nos casos que em controles (p < 0,05). Curiosamente, na análise de densidade neuronal das camadas corticais, apenas a camada IV não apresentou diferença estatisticamente significante entre casos e controles. CONCLUSÕES: Nossos achados mostram que alterações no COF podem estar envolvidas com a fisiopatologia do TOC ou TAB, e indicam que podem haver interações entre elas e, além disso, concordam com estudos de imagem funcional e de atividades cerebrais na região MO que nos faz refletir que além de uma perda neuronal, há também uma hipoativação e uma redução funcional. Estudos com um número maior de amostras e com diferenciação celular poderão trazer novas contribuições para o entendimento da fisiopatologia desses transtornos neuropsiquiátricos / INTRODUCTION: Bipolar disorder (BD) and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) are within the ten medical condition promoving incapacity worldwide. To date, their neuropathological substrates are yet to be disclosed. Postmortem studies designed to estimate cytoarchitectonic and molecular changes for clinical and imaging correlation, have the potencial to undercover pathophysiological aspects of these conditions. OBJECTIVE: Objective: To compare neuronal density, volume and total neuron number of orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) as a whole and divided by sub-regions: anteromedial (AM), medio-orbitofrontal (MO) and antero-lateral (AL) among BD, OCD and matched controls. METHODS: We used 17 postmortem brains sourced from the Psy- BBBABSG. All the subject were older than 50 years and were classified based on clinical evaluation in BD, OCD and healthy control. Subjects were matched by age, gender and brain hemisphere. One hemisphere were perfusion fixed with 20% formalin and used for neuroestereological studies. The second hemisphere had ROIs dissected and snap frozen for future molecular studies. OUTCOMES: Neuron density in OFC and the sub-regions were decreased in cases vs. controls (p < 0,05). This result was observed in cortical layers analyses with exception of layer IV. We did not observed significant changes in volume. The MO sub-region had reduced total neuron number in cases than in controls (p < 0,05). CONCLUSION: Ours results suggest that OFC changes may be part of BD and OCD pathogenesis. These results go in line with functional imaging findings. Further studies with a higher number of cases and adressing specific neuron types are needed

Diversos estudos sugerem que as células-tronco da medula óssea podem ser úteis no tratamento de lesões do tecido nervoso. O presente estudo investigou se a terapia com células medulares seria capaz de modificar os efeitos comportamentais de lesões no hipocampo. Células mononucleares da medula óssea marcadas com a proteína fluorescente verde (EGFP) foram transplantadas em camundongos C57BL/6 que tiveram o hipocampo dorsal danificado por lesão eletrolítica bilateral. Os resultados da avaliação comportamental no labirinto em cruz elevado mostraram que a lesão hipocampal produziu ansiólise, quadro que foi atenuado nos animais transplantados. Na análise imuno-histoquímica do tecido cerebral, foi observada presença limitada de células EGFP+ no cérebro dos animais lesionados. Dada a não recuperação da citoarquitetura tissular, acredita-se que os benefícios observados sobre o comportamento tenham resultado de um efeito parácrino das células mononucleares, que auxiliaram na ação de mecanismos endógenos para restituição parcial das funções do hipocampo. / Several studies suggest that stem cells from bone marrow may be useful in treating lesions of the nervous tissue. This study investigated if bone marrow cell therapy would be able to modify the behavioral effects of lesions in the hippocampus. Bone marrow mononuclear cells labeled with the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) were transplanted into C57BL/6 mice which had the dorsal hippocampus damaged by bilateral electrolytic lesion. The results of the behavioral assessment in the elevated plus-maze showed that the hippocampal lesion produced anxiolysis, an effect that was attenuated in transplanted animals. Immunohistochemical analysis of brain tissue revealed, however, a limited presence of EGFP+ cells into the brains of injured animals. Given the non-recovery of the tissue cytoarchitecture, it is believed that the observed benefits on the behavior resulted from a paracrine effect of the mononuclear cells, which possibly helped in the action of endogenous mechanisms for partial reimbursement of the hippocampal functions.

INTRODUÇÃO: A dor pélvica crônica não visceral constitui desafio clínico, justificável pela diversidade de estruturas presentes na pelve e pelo amplo arcabouço musculoesquelético que a envolve, sustenta e protege, o que dificulta seu diagnóstico e tratamento. Várias são as causas de sua ocorrência e vários sistemas orgânicos podem estar nela envolvidos, isolada ou associadamente, incluindo-se especialmente o geniturinário, o gastrointestinal, o neuropsicológico e o musculoesquelético. OBJETIVOS: Caracterizar-se clínica e demograficamente uma amostra composta de mulheres com dor pélvica crônica de origem não visceral refratária ao tratamento convencional e avaliar-se do efeito analgésico da estimulação magnética transcraniana repetitiva (EMTr) na magnitude da dor, psiquismo, função sexual e qualidade de vida. CASUÍSTICA E MÉTODOS: Dezoito doentes foram aleatorizadamente incluídas em dois grupos (A e B) de estudo para receber tratamento inicial com EMTr ativa (EMTr-a) ou EMTr sham (EMTr-s) respectivamente, aplicadas na área de representação da pelve e períneo do córtex motor primário. EMTr-a foi realizada com a frequência de 10Hz; 80% do limiar motor de repouso totalizando 3000 pulsos por sessão. A EMTr-s foi realizada com uma bobina desconectada e uma segunda bobina ativa aplicada perpendicularmente à primeira e ligada de modo a emitir sons e reverberações sobre o escalpo semelhantes ao da EMTr. Três semanas após a sessão de EMTr-a, as doentes do grupo A foram tratadas com EMTr-s e as do grupo B com EMTr-a. As avaliações foram realizadas no momento basal (D-7), e nos dias, -1, +7, + 21, +28 e +36 do início do estudo. Foram utilizados os seguintes inventários validados para a língua portuguesa: Inventário Breve de Dor; DN-4, Questionário de descritores breve de dor McGill, Inventário de Sintomas de Dor Neuropática, Escala Hospitalar de Ansiedade e Depressão, Índice da Função Sexual Feminina, WHOQOL-breve, Escala Visual Analógica e Questionário para Avaliação da Dor Pélvica e um algiometro para avaliar a sensibilidade dolorosa muscular na pelve e quadril. RESULTADOS E CONCLUSÕES: A DPC era intensa, havia escores elevados de ansiedade e depressão, a dor causou impacto negativo nas atividades físicas e diárias, na autopercepção do estado de saúde, na função sexual feminina e na qualidade de vida e houve elevada ocorrência da síndrome dolorosa miofascial nos músculos pélvicos e do quadril. A EMTr-a proporcionou melhora significativa da dor nas doentes tratadas inicialmente com EMTr-a e a EMTr-s causou melhora significativa e menos marcante da dor quando foi precedida do tratamento com a EMTr-a. Não houve modificação significativa dos valores dos escores de depressão e ansiedade e dos valores dos escores do Índice da Função Sexual Feminina nas doentes inicialmente tratadas com EMTr-a e ocorreu aumento do valor do escore ansiedade nas doentes inicialmente tratadas com EMTr-s. Houve aumento dos valores dos domínios \"psicológico\" e \"meio ambiente\" do WHOQOL-breve nas doentes tratadas inicialmente com EMTra. O resultado do tratamento inicial com EMTr-a ou EMTr-s influenciou o resultado do segundo procedimento. O limiar motor em repouso estava elevado, a inibição intracortical reduzida e a facilitação intracortical normal. Houve correlação entre o limiar motor de repouso e o maior número de descritores afetivos do Questionário de Dor McGill e entre a redução da inibição intracortical e o número aumentado de descritores afetivos do mesmo questionário. A estimulação magnética transcraniana repetitiva é procedimento seguro e alternativa terapêutica para doentes com DPC / INTRODUCTION: Non-visceral chronic pelvic pain is clinical challenge due to the diversity of structures present in the pelvis and the widespread musculoskeletal framework that surrounds, supports and protects, which makes its diagnosis and treatment very difficult and usually unsatisfactory. Many are its causes and various organs may be involved in its occurrence, either alone or in association, especially the genitourinary, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal and neuropsychological structures. OBJECTIVES: Clinical and demographic characterization of a sample of women with non-visceral chronic pelvic pain refractory to conventional treatments and evaluation of the analgesic efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the magnitude of pain, psychic, sexual function and quality of life. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Eighteen patients were randomly included into two groups (A and B) accordingly the use of active rTMS (rTMS-a) or sham rTMS (rTMS-s), respectively, applied in the representation area of the pelvis and motor cortex perineum primary as the first approach. rTMS-a was performed with 10Hz, 80% of the muscle resting threshold and 3000 pulses per session. s-rTMS was performed with a disconnected coil and a second coil applied perpendicularly to the first one to generate sounds and reverberations on the scalp similar to rTMS-a. Three weeks after the session of rTMS-a the group A patients were treated with rTMS-s and the group B patients with rTMS-a. The evaluations were performed at baseline (D-7), and on days -1, +7, +21, +28 and +36 from the start of the study. The following inventories validated for the Brazilian-Portuguese language were used, Brief Pain Inventory were used; DN-4, Questionnaire brief descriptors of McGill Symptoms Inventory Neuropathic Pain, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Female Sexual Function Index, WHOQOL-brief, Visual Analogue Scale and the Questionnaire for Assessment of Pelvic Pain. A muscle algometer to assess muscle soreness in the pelvis and hip was also used. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The DPC was severe, the patients presented high scores of anxiety and depression, pain caused negative impact on physical and daily activities, self-perceived health status, female sexual function and quality of life and there was high incidence of myofascial pain syndrome the pelvic muscles and hip. rTMS-a provided significant improvement of pain in patients initially treated with rTMS-a and rTMS-s resulted in significant but less expressive improvement in pain when it was preceded by treatment with rTMS-a. There was no significant change in the values of the scores of depression and anxiety and of the Female Sexual Function Index in patients initially treated with rTMS-a it and there was an increase in the value of the score anxiety in patients initially treated with rTMS-s. There was improvement of the \"psychological\" and \"environment\" dominions of the WHOQOL-brief in patients initially treated with rTMS-a. The results of initial treatment with rTMS-a or rTMS-s influenced the outcome of the second procedure. The resting motor threshold was high, the intracortical inhibition was reduced, and the intracortical facilitation normal. There was correlation between the resting motor threshold and the affective descriptors of the McGill Pain Questionnaire and between reduced intracortical inhibition and the increased number of affective descriptors of the same questionnaire. rTMS is a safe procedure and therapeutic alternative for patients with DPC

Es ist noch weitgehend ungeklärt, mittels welcher Mechanismen die elektrische Aktivität von Nervenzellpopulationen des Gehirns Verhalten ermöglicht. Die Orientierung im Raum ist eine Fähigkeit des Gehirns, für die im Säugetier der mediale entorhinale Teil der Großhirnrinde als entscheidende Struktur identifiziert wurde. Hier wurden Nervenzellen gefunden, die die Umgebung des Individuums in einer gitterartigen Anordnung repräsentieren. Die neuronalen Schaltkreise, welche diese geordnete Nervenzellaktivität im medialen entorhinalen Kortex (MEK) ermöglichen, sind noch wenig verstanden. Die vorliegende Dissertation hat eine Klärung der zellulären Architektur und der neuronalen Schaltkreise in der zweiten Schicht des MEK der Ratte zum Ziel. Zunächst werden die Beiträge zur Entdeckung der hexagonal angeordneten zellulären Anhäufungen in Schicht 2 des MEK sowie zur Beschreibung der Dichotomie der Haupt-Nervenzelltypen dargestellt. Im zweiten Teil wird erstmalig eine konnektomische Analyse des MEK beschrieben. Die detaillierte Untersuchung der Architektur einzelner exzitatorischer Axone ergab das überraschende Ergebnis der präzisen Sortierung von Synapsen entlang axonaler Pfade. Die neuronalen Schaltkreise, in denen diese Neurone eingebettet sind, zeigten eine starke zeitliche Bevorzugung der hemmenden Neurone. Die hier erhobenen Daten tragen zu einem detaillierteren Verständnis der neuronalen Schaltkreise im MEK bei. Sie enthalten die erste Beschreibung überraschend präziser axonaler synaptischer Ordnung im zerebralen Kortex der Säugetiere. Diese Schaltkreisarchitektur lässt einen Effekt auf die Weiterleitung synchroner elektrischer Populationsaktivität im MEK vermuten. In zukünftigen Studien muss insbesondere geklärt werden, ob es sich bei den hier berichteten Ergebnissen um eine Besonderheit des MEK oder ein generelles Verschaltungsprinzip der Hirnrinde des Säugetiers handelt. / The mechanisms by which the electrical activity of ensembles of neurons in the brain give rise to an individual’s behavior are still largely unknown. Navigation in space is one important capacity of the brain, for which the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) is a pivotal structure in mammals. At the cellular level, neurons that represent the surrounding space in a grid-like fashion have been identified in MEC. These so-called grid cells are located predominantly in layer 2 (L2) of MEC. The detailed neuronal circuits underlying this unique activity pattern are still poorly understood. This thesis comprises studies contributing to a mechanistic description of the synaptic architecture in rat MEC L2. First, this thesis describes the discovery of hexagonally arranged cell clusters and anatomical data on the dichotomy of the two principle cell types in L2 of the MEC. Then, the first connectomic study of the MEC is reported. An analysis of the axonal architecture of excitatory neurons revealed synaptic positional sorting along axons, integrated into precise microcircuits. These microcircuits were found to involve interneurons with a surprising degree of axonal specialization for effective and fast inhibition. Together, these results contribute to a detailed understanding of the circuitry in MEC. They provide the first description of highly precise synaptic arrangements along axons in the cerebral cortex of mammals. The functional implications of these anatomical features were explored using numerical simulations, suggesting effects on the propagation of synchronous activity in L2 of the MEC. These findings motivate future investigations to clarify the contribution of precise synaptic architecture to computations underlying spatial navigation. Further studies are required to understand whether the reported synaptic specializations are specific for the MEC or represent a general wiring principle in the mammalian cortex.

Die kortikale spreading depression (SD), wie sie von Leão 1944 zuerst beschrieben wurde, ist ein elektrophysiologisches Phänomen, das in der Pathophysiologie der Aurasymptomatik einer Mi-gräneattacke und Ischämie-induzierter Zellschäden diskutiert wird. Während der akuten fokalen zerebralen Ischämie treten eine Reihe von Ereignissen wie eine massive Entzündungsreaktion und die allmähliche Einbeziehung einer zunächst viablen ischämischen Randzone - der Penum-bra - in das infarzierte Hirngewebe auf. Da an diesen Ereignissen SD-ähnliche Depolarisationen kausal beteiligt sind, ist die pharmakologische Verringerung von SD-Episoden bzw. eine Ver-kleinerung ihrer Amplitude und Dauer unter in vitro als auch tierexperimentellen in vivo Bedin-gungen eine mögliche neuroprotektive Strategie. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein in vitro Modell beschrieben, das am Hirnschnittpräparat des Neokortex der adulten Ratte eine reproduzierbare Auslösung von SD-Wellen unter normoxi-schen Bedingungen gestattet. Anhand von charakteristischen elektrophysiologischen Parametern einer SD wie Amplitude, Dauer und Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit wurden die gute Überein-stimmungen dieses in vitro Modells mit in vivo Modellen gezeigt. Obwohl SD Wellen am nicht-ischämischen Kortex keine morphologischen Schäden verursachen, zeigte sich in den hier vorge-stellten Experimenten eine funktionelle Unterdrückung der GABAergen hemmenden Mechanis-men des Neokortex nach repetitiven SDs auch bei ausreichender Energie- und Sauerstoffversor-gung. Die hier diskutierten Ergebnisse demonstrierten, daß unter in vitro Bedingungen der AMPA-Glutamatrezeptor für die Auslösung und Ausbreitung einer SD eine untergeordnete Rolle spielt. Demgegenüber erwies sich die NMDA-Rezeptoraktivierung als herausragend für eine SD, da die Blockade dieses Rezeptors mit dem nicht-kompetitiven Antagonisten Ketamin die SD-Amplitude und SD-Dauer signifikant verringerte. Die Anwendung der selektiven 5-HT1A-Agonisten 8-OH-DPAT und BAY x 3702 erwies sich als eine neue Möglichkeit, die Zeitdauer einer SD zu verringern. Die aufgezeigte SD-induzierte neuronale Hyperexzitabilität kann unter normoxischen Bedingun-gen zelluläre Dysfunktionen verursachen und auch an einer Generierung der Aura eines Migrä-neanfalls beteiligt sein. Unter hypoxisch-ischämischen Bedingungen könnte eine SD-induzierte Dysfunktion GABAerger Kontrollmechanismen die Ausweitung ischämischer Zellschäden be-wirken. Die Hoffnungen auf eine effektive Schlaganfalltherapie haben sich mit den bisherigen NMDA-Antagonisten trotz ihrer hier bestätigten guten in vitro Wirksamkeit aufgrund der Interferenz mit physiologischen Glutamatfunktionen im Kortex nicht erfüllt. Die hier gezeigte konzentrationsab-hängige Verkürzung der SD-Dauer durch die Aktivierung des 5-HT1A-Serotoninrezeptors unter in vitro Bedingungen kann bei der bekannten hohen 5-HT1A-Rezeptor-mRNA-dichte an beson-ders ischämievulnerablen Neuronen einen neuen neuroprotektiven Ansatz auch beim Menschen darstellen. Weitere Untersuchungen müssen zeigen, ob die hier beschriebene enge Verflechtung des serotonergen Systems mit der glutamatergen Neurotransmission eventuell auch zu uner-wünschte Wirkungen unter in vivo Bedingungen führt. / Repetitive cortical spreading depression (SD) and SD-like events, associated with a massive de-polarization of neuronal and glial cells, is thought to play a key role in the induction of neuronal damage in the peri-infarct zone following experimental focal cerebral ischemia. In addition, ex-perimental and clinical data suggest that SD is the underlying mechanism of neurological distur-bances during migraine auras as well. However, detailed analyses on the consequences of repeti-tive SDs on cortical function and involved receptors are lacking. Using an in vitro rat model of SD I investigated in this thesis the electrophysiological properties of repetitive potassium chloride (KCl)-induced SDs, their influence on synaptic neurotransmis-sion and the effects of ionotropic glutamate antagonists and 5-HT1A agonists in neocortical slices obtained from adult rats. Whereas repetitive SDs revealed only non-significant variations in du-ration, amplitude and integral when elicited at intervals of 30 min, paired-pulse inhibition of ex-tracellularly recorded field potential responses was significantly affected by repetitive SD even under normoxic conditions. Compared to the control recordings, each SD episode caused a sig-nificant decrease in the efficacy of intracortical GABAergic inhibition by approximately 10%. Since excitatory synaptic transmission was unaffected, these data indicate that repetitive SDs cause a selective suppression of GABAergic function even in the non-ischemic brain. None of the compounds tested prevented the SD-induced cortical disinhibition. However, the SD-associated negative shift in the extracellular DC potential was reduced by ketamine, a selective N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA-) receptor antagonist. Ketamine significantly (p < 0.01) re-duced the amplitude of the first SD peak and blocked the second SD peak. Ketamine also de-creased the SD duration at half maximal amplitude (p < 0.05). NBQX, a selective a-amino-3- hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor antagonist did not affect the SD-accompanied cortical depolarization, whereas selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)1A receptor agonists 8-OH-DPAT and BAY x 3702 shortened concentration-dependently the duration of the SD up to 50 %. Nevertheless, both 5-HT1A receptor agonists caused a strong disinhibition of neu-ronal function with a tendency towards paired-pulse facilitation as well. Thus, repetitive SD and SD-like events may induce neuronal hyperexcitability due to a selective suppression of intrinsic inhibitory GABAergic function. Under normoxic conditions, SD-induced disinhibition may be involved in the generation and maintenance of migraine or associated neurological disturbances. Under hypoxic-ischemic conditions, neuronal hyperexcitability may contribute to the gradual expansion of the ischemic core and the metabolic deterioration of the penumbral tissue after SD episodes. This underlines the deleterious effect of SD to the outcome of focal cerebral ischemia. Although the precise mecha-nisms of SD generation and propagation remains far from established, the present pharmacologi-cal profile of KCl-induced SD in vitro links the induction and propagation of SD in rat neocorti-cal slices mainly to a local increase of [K + ] e and a subsequent activation of NMDA- receptors. This corroborates the neuroprotective effect of a NMDA- receptor blockade observed in various in vitro and in vivo models. However, as it has been demonstrated in clinical trials, NMDA- re-ceptor antagonists in use today cause psychomimetic and cardiovascular side effects in humans and are therefore currently of low clinical benefit. The activation of 5-HT1A receptors by selective agonists represents a new pharmacological strategy in the treatment of acute ischemic stroke, since shortened SD waves may represent a less energy-consuming process under conditions of limited energy supply and are probably associated with an efflux of excitatory neurotransmitters to a lesser extent. The potential clinical benefit of 5-HT 1A receptor agonists remains to be investi-gated in clinical trials, since systemic administration of these compounds after the onset of acute focal cerebral ischemia might interfere with normal functions of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the intact, non-ischemic brain.

O complexo da esclerose tuberosa (TSC) é um transtorno clínico, com expressividade variável, caracterizado por hamartomas que podem ocorrer em diferentes órgãos. Tem herança autossômica dominante e é devido a mutações em um de dois genes supressores de tumor, TSC1 ou TSC2. Estes codificam para as proteínas hamartina e tuberina, respectivamente, que se associam formando um complexo macromolecular que regula funções como proliferação, diferenciação, crescimento e migração celular. As lesões cerebrais podem ser muito graves em pacientes com TSC e caracterizam-se por nódulos subependimários (SEN), astrocitomas subependimários de células gigantes (SEGA), tuberosidades corticais e heterotopias neuronais, podendo relacionar-se clinicamente à epilepsia refratária à terapia medicamentosa, deficiência intelectual, desordens do comportamento e hidrocefalia. O potencial de crescimento de SEGA até os 21 anos de idade dos pacientes exige acompanhamento periódico por exame de imagem e condutas clínicas ou cirúrgicas, conforme indicação médica. As lesões subependimárias têm sido explicadas por déficits de controle da proliferação, crescimento e diferenciação de precursores neuro-gliais na zona subventricular telencefálica. Embora a capacidade da tuberina em inibir a proliferação celular pela repressão do alvo da rapamicina em mamíferos (mTOR) esteja bem documentada, outros aspectos celulares do desenvolvimento de SEGA ainda não foram examinados. Assim, é importante estabelecer um sistema in vitro para o estudo de células da zona subventricular e testá-lo na análise das proteínas hamartina e tuberina. Neste sentido, o cultivo de neuroesferas em suspensão é muito apropriado. Neste estudo, buscamos relacionar a expressão e distribuição subcelular da hamartina e tuberina à capacidade proliferativa e de diferenciação das células de neuroesferas cultivadas in vitro a partir da dissociação da vesícula telencefálica de embriões de ratos normais. Analisamos a expressão e distribuição subcelular da hamartina e tuberina por imunofluorescência indireta em células entre a primeira e a quarta passagens das neuroesferas, sincronizadas nas fases G1 ou S do ciclo celular e após a reentrada no ciclo celular, através da incorporação de 5-bromo-2\'-desoxiuridina (BrdU) e imunofluorescência com anticorpo anti-BrdU. Em geral, células de neuroesferas apresentaram baixa colocalização entre hamartina e tuberina in vitro. A expressão da tuberina foi elevada em basicamente todas as células das esferas e fases do ciclo celular; ao contrário, a hamartina apresentou-se principalmente nas células da periferia das esferas. A colocalização entre hamartina e tuberina foi observada em células mais periféricas das esferas, sobretudo no citoplasma e, em G1, no núcleo celular. A proteína rheb, que conhecidamente interage diretamente com a tuberina, apresentou distribuição subcelular muito semelhante à desta. Ao carenciamento das células visando à parada do ciclo celular na transição G1/S, tuberina distribuiu-se ao núcleo celular em quase todas as células avaliadas e, de forma menos frequente, a hamartina também. À reentrada no ciclo celular pelo reacréscimo dos fatores de crescimento, avaliaram-se células com incorporação de BrdU ao seu núcleo celular, após 72 e 96 horas. Nestas, tuberina mostrou-se novamente no citoplasma de forma preponderante e hamartina manteve-se citoplasmática, em geral subjacente à membrana plasmática, em níveis mais baixos. Os grupos cujas células reciclaram por 72 ou 96 horas diferiram quanto ao aumento significativo da expressão da hamartina em células proliferativas no último. À diferenciação neuronal, aumentaram-se os níveis de expressão de hamartina observáveis à imunofluorescência indireta, tornando-se equivalentes àqueles da tuberina. Concluímos que as células de neuroesferas cultivadas em suspensão apresentam-se como um sistema apropriado ao estudo da distribuição das proteínas hamartina e tuberina e sua relação com o ciclo celular / The tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a clinical disorder with variable expressivity, characterized by hamartomas that can occur in different organs. It has autosomal dominant inheritance and is due to mutations in one of two tumor suppressor genes, TSC1 or TSC2. These encode for the proteins hamartin and tuberin, respectively, which are associated in a macromolecular complex which functions as a regulator of cell proliferation, differentiation, growth and migration. TSC brain lesions may be severe and are characterized by subependymal nodules (SEN), subependymal giant cell astrocytomas (SEGA), neuronal heterotopias and cortical tubers, and may be clinically related to refractory epilepsy, intellectual disability, behavioral disorders and hydrocephaly. The growth potential of SEGA up to 21 years of age in TSC patients requires regular monitoring by imaging. Clinical and surgical interventions may be medically indicated. Subependymal lesions have been explained by deficient control of proliferation, growth and differentiation of neuro-glial progenitors from the telencephalic subventricular zone. While tuberin ability to inhibit cell proliferation by repressing the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) has been well documented, other cell aspects of SEGA development have not been thoroughly examined. Therefore, it is important to establish conditions for an in vitro system to study the cells from the subventricular zone and to test its suitability for the study of the TSC proteins. In this regard, the neurosphere suspension culture is very appropriate. We evaluated the expression and subcellular distribution of hamartin and tuberin in relation to the proliferation and differentiation capability of neurosphere cells derived in vitro from the dissociation of the telencephalic vesicle of normal E14 rat embryos. These analyses were performed by indirect immunofluorescence in cells from first through fourth passages of neurospheres, synchronized in G1 or S phases of the cell cycle, and after reentry into the cell cycle by the addition of 5-brome-2\'-desoxyuridine (BrdU) and immunolabeling with anti-BrdU antibody. In general, neurosphere cells presented low colocalization between hamartin and tuberin in vitro. Tuberin expression was relatively high in basically all neurosphere cells and cell cycle phases, whereas hamartin distributed mainly to cells from the periphery of the spheres. In these cells, hamartin and tuberin colocalization was evident mostly in the cytoplasm and, in G1, also in the cell nucleus. Rheb, which is known to interact directly with tuberin, had subcellular distribution very similar to tuberin. Cell starvation indicating cell cycle arrest at G1/S redistributed tuberin to the cell nucleus in virtually all cells examined, what was accompanied by nuclear location of hamartin in a small subset of cells. When cells were allowed to reenter cell cycle by adding growth factors, we evaluated BrdU-labeled nuclei 72 and 96 hours later. In the two groups, tuberin was shown to move back to the cytoplasm as well as hamartin, which apparently maintained its lower expression levels distribution underneath the plasma membrane. Group of cells that recycled for 96 hours had significantly more expression of hamartin than those cells that cycled for only 72 hours. After neuronal differentiation, hamartin expression levels observed by immunofluorescence were similar to those of tuberin. We conclude that neurosphere cells cultured in suspension showed to be an appropriate cell system to study hamartin and tuberin distribution in respect to the cell cycle

O estudo foi realizado através de avaliação de 214 hemisférios cerebrais, de 107 espécimes humanos, com a idade variando desde 12 semanas de gestação até 8 meses pós-natal. A idade gestacional dos fetos foi calculada através do seu peso corpóreo. Os fetos com malformações congênitas ou com encéfalos danificados foram excluídos. Após a fixação do encéfalo em solução de formol a 10%, foi removida a aracnóide para a análise dos sulcos do cérebro, os quais foram então estudados, desde o seu aparecimento, até sua formação completa. A principal finalidade desse estudo foi estabelecer os padrões de desenvolvimento morfológico dos sulcos cerebrais característicos de cada idade gestacional. Tendo como base a análise dos resultados, foram estabelecidas tabelas de referências cronológicas pertinentes à formação de cada sulco em toda superfície do cérebro. / The study was done through the analysis of 214 brain hemispheres of 107 human brains, with their ages ranging from 12 weeks of gestation to 8 months of postnatal life. The gestational age was calculated from their body weight. The fetuses with congenital abnormalities and or damaged brains were excluded from the study. After the brain fixation with 10% formalin, the arachnoid was removed for the study of the sulci and fissures of the brain, since their appearance until their complete development. The aim of this anatomical study was to establish a reliable sulci morphological pattern characteristic of each gestational age. Based in our findings, reference tables pertinent to the appearance of each sulci of all brain surface were built and are here presented.

Diversos estudos sugerem que as células-tronco da medula óssea podem ser úteis no tratamento de lesões do tecido nervoso. O presente estudo investigou se a terapia com células medulares seria capaz de modificar os efeitos comportamentais de lesões no hipocampo. Células mononucleares da medula óssea marcadas com a proteína fluorescente verde (EGFP) foram transplantadas em camundongos C57BL/6 que tiveram o hipocampo dorsal danificado por lesão eletrolítica bilateral. Os resultados da avaliação comportamental no labirinto em cruz elevado mostraram que a lesão hipocampal produziu ansiólise, quadro que foi atenuado nos animais transplantados. Na análise imuno-histoquímica do tecido cerebral, foi observada presença limitada de células EGFP+ no cérebro dos animais lesionados. Dada a não recuperação da citoarquitetura tissular, acredita-se que os benefícios observados sobre o comportamento tenham resultado de um efeito parácrino das células mononucleares, que auxiliaram na ação de mecanismos endógenos para restituição parcial das funções do hipocampo. / Several studies suggest that stem cells from bone marrow may be useful in treating lesions of the nervous tissue. This study investigated if bone marrow cell therapy would be able to modify the behavioral effects of lesions in the hippocampus. Bone marrow mononuclear cells labeled with the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) were transplanted into C57BL/6 mice which had the dorsal hippocampus damaged by bilateral electrolytic lesion. The results of the behavioral assessment in the elevated plus-maze showed that the hippocampal lesion produced anxiolysis, an effect that was attenuated in transplanted animals. Immunohistochemical analysis of brain tissue revealed, however, a limited presence of EGFP+ cells into the brains of injured animals. Given the non-recovery of the tissue cytoarchitecture, it is believed that the observed benefits on the behavior resulted from a paracrine effect of the mononuclear cells, which possibly helped in the action of endogenous mechanisms for partial reimbursement of the hippocampal functions.