Thesis (LL.M.) -- University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: With the arrival of the Internet, the availability of pornography, and especially child pornography, has increased tremendously. This rapidly developing technological wonderworld has brought the dark syndicate of sexual exploitation of children to the living room of each home equipped with a computer. In South Africa the right of the child to not be sexually exploited or abused is enshrined in section 28 of the Constitution, 108 of 1996, as well as in several international documents. This thesis analyses the legislative framework in this regard and comes to the conclusion that South African legislation concerned shows much room for improvement. Legislation concerning sexual offences against children makes use of archaic terms that are outdated in the present context. It is also vague, inconsistent and provides insufficient protection to children in this regard. The sexual exploitation of children does not, despite promises made by the South African government in ratifying several international documents, receive high priority in the South African community. This finding is made in view of the examination of certain key concepts to the subject, international documents such as the United Nations Convention to the Rights of the Child, 1989, and the activities of international organisations combating the sexual exploitation of the child. An analysis of the manner in which countries such as the United States of America, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and Japan has implemented protection measures against this form of abuse, is also made. Proposals to increase the protection of children in South Africa are submitted in conclusion. Although this new domain needs urgent measures of regulation, it is not an impossible task to govern the Internet. Formulating comprehensive, consistent and effective legislation is a fundamental part in the battle against the sexual exploitation of children. The co-operation of all relevant sectors, including the government, the Internet industry and members of the community, however, remains essential. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die beskikbaarheid van pornografie, en veral kinderpornografie, het met die koms van die Internet onrusbarend toegeneem. Hierdie vinnig ontwikkelende tegnologiese wonderwereld het die seksuele eksploitasie van kinders vanuit die donker onderwereld na die voorkamer van elke huis met 'n rekenaar gebring. In Suid-Afrika word die reg van die kind om teen seksuele uitbuiting en mishandeling beskerm te word in artikel 28 van die Grondwet, 108 van 1996, asook verskeie internasionale dokumente verskans. Hierdie tesis ondersoek die wetgewende raamwerk rakende die groeiende probleem van seksuele eksploitasie op die Internet en vind dat Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing in hierdie verband nog ver te kort skiet. Wetgewing met betrekking tot seksuele misdade teen kinders maak tans gebruik van arqaise terme wat glad nie meer in vandag se konteks relevant is nie. Dit is voorts ook onsamehangend, onduidelik en verskaf onvoeldoende beskerming aan kinders in hierdie verband. Ten spyte van beloftes deur die Suid-Afrikaanse regering, gemaak tydens die ratifisering van verskeie internasionale dokumente, geniet die aangeleentheid van beskerming van die kind teen seksuele uitbuiting op die Internet nog nie prioriteit in die Suid- Afrikaanse samelewing nie. Hierdie bevinding word gemaak in die lig van die bestudering van definisies van sekere kernbegrippe, internasionale dokumente soos die Verenigde Nasies se Konvensie van die Regte van die Kind, 1989, en die werksaamhede van internasionale organisasies bemoeid met die bekamping van seksuele eksploitasie van die kind. Daar word ook veral aandag gegee aan die wyse waarop lande soos die Verenigde State van Amerika, Kanada, die Verenigde Koninkryk, Duitsland en Japan te werk gegaan het om kinders in die onderskeie lande te beskerm. Voorstelle ten einde die beskerming van Suid-Afrikaanse kinders teen seksuele eksploitasie op die Internet te verbreed, word ter konklusie gegee. Alhoewel die nuwe terrein dringend regulering benodig, is dit nie In totaal onmoontlike taak om die Internet te kontroleer nie. Die formulering van omvattende, eenvormige en effektiewe wetgewing in die verband is In fundamentele proses in die stryd om kinders te beskerm. Die samewerking van relevante rolspelers en veral die regering, die Internet sektor en lede van die gemeenskap is egter van uiterste belang.

Réalisé en cotutelle avec l'Université de Paris-sud XI, France. / Les jeunes sont les premiers utilisateurs du réseau Internet. Celui-ci a permis le développement de certains contenus illicites, comme la pédopornographie. Les pouvoirs publics se retrouvent souvent impuissants face à l’évolution de ce phénomène, encore bien méconnu aujourd’hui. D’ailleurs, l’aspect international d’Internet met en concurrence différentes conceptions morales et culturelles qui posent des problèmes, notamment au niveau des définitions des notions. En outre, les adolescents ont tendance à imiter les adultes et plus spécialement, lorsque cela touche à la sexualité. Pourtant, les législateurs canadiens et français leur imposent certaines restrictions, qu’ils jugent justifiables et raisonnables. Toutefois, ces jeunes vivent entre une société virtuelle (Internet) et réelle gouvernée par une vision sexuée des choses et où le corps humain représente une valeur commerciale à exploiter. C’est ainsi que de nouveaux comportements apparaissent. Pour les supprimer, les mineurs sont devenus la principale catégorie de personnes à protéger en raison de leur vulnérabilité et le lien unificateur qu’ils représentent pour les pays. Ils deviennent ainsi le nouveau fondement de la moralité publique sur le réseau Internet, ce qui permet à l’État d’imposer sa vision morale de la sexualité, et notamment une norme de comportement. De plus, le droit criminel semble traiter de manière différente les délinquants sexuels qui représentent le groupe à neutraliser en raison du risque qu’ils engendrent. En effet, il semblerait qu’il y ait un certain retour de l’homme dangereux dans nos sociétés contemporaines en mal de sécurité. Il est clair que désormais, il n’est plus acceptable que des personnes présentant un risque réel pour la société puisse faire de nouvelles victimes, en l’occurrence mineure. Notre étude vise à examiner et à éclaircir les fondements de la rationalité du discours juridique relatif à la réglementation de la cyberpédopornographie. Pour cela, nous nous interrogerons sur l’impact des nouvelles technologies de l’information sur le droit criminel qui a, comme ces dernières, évolué dans nos sociétés contemporaines. Le législateur a été forcé de prendre en compte les nouvelles réalités qui n’existaient pas forcément, il y a quelques années. Le droit criminel, qui représente les moeurs de la société de son époque, semble, par ailleurs, s’orienter vers un droit social de revendication et subjectif. De nombreuses questions surviennent à savoir : faut-il condamner toutes les formes de pédopornographie au point d’accepter une ingérence importante de l’État dans notre vie intime? N’y-a-t’il pas un certain paternalisme de la part de l’État dans la façon de légiférer dans ce domaine? La morale n’est-elle pas la cause de ce retour à une importante sévérité dans ce domaine? D’ailleurs, ce paternalisme étatique ne montre-t-il pas également l’occasion pour les pouvoirs publics de contrôler, voire surveiller les internautes? / Young people are the primary users of the Internet. This has enabled the development of certain illegal content, like child pornography. Governments often find themselves powerless to change this growing phenomen that is still well unknown. Moreover, the international aspect of the Internet put in perspectives different moral and cultural conceptions causing problems, particularly in term of definitions of those concepts. In addition, teenagers tend to imitate adults especially when it relates to sexuality. However, Canadian and french law makers impose them some restrictions they consider justifiable and reasonable. Nevertheless, these young people live between a virtual society (Internet) and a real one governed by a sexual oriented view where the human body is see as a commercial value to exploit. As a result, new behaviors are appearing. To neutralize them, minors became the first category that need to be protected because of their vulnerability and the unifying bond that they represent for the country. From now on, they represent the new public morality foundation on the Internet, which let the State impose its moral vision of sexuality, and in particular a behaviour norm. Moreover, criminal law seems to treat different sex offenders who represent the group to neutralize because of the risk they represent. Indeed, it seems that there is a return of the dangerous man in our contemporary societies in need of security. It is now clear that it is more acceptable for people with a real risk to society could be more victims in this case minor. Our study aims to examine and clarify the foundations of rationality of legal discourse on the regulation of child pornography on the Internet. For this, we will question the impact of recent news technology on criminal law, which like those last evolved in our contemporary societies. The lawmaker was forced to take into account the new realities that were inevitably not existing few years ago. Criminal law, which represents the morals of the society of his era, seems also to move towards a social right of claim and subjective. Many questions arise including: does it take to condemn all kind of child pornography so, an important interference of the State in our private life can be accepted? Is there some paternalism from the State in its way of legislating? Is not Morality the cause of this return to a major severity in this area? Moreover, this State paternalism may be an opportunity for the authorities to control, even to watch over the internet users?

The number of girls that are being exploited for prostitution in Nepal has increased in recent years, and girls suffer a high risk of being exposed when they come from already poorly conditions. Previously, uneducated girls could be found in the adult entertainment sector, but nowadays even educated girls are being exploited. This thesis aims to gain further understanding to why girls are being exposed and why it is difficult to protect them. By conducting qualitive interviews with employees from several NGOs working to protect girls from being exploited for prostitution, insights has been given about socio-structural factors that influences the situation for girls. By examining these factors with support from theoretical approaches that highlights social injustice, gender discrimination and structural oppression this thesis presents how different factors affect the work of protecting girls, and how the same factors also are contributing to why girls get exposed. The state of Nepal shows several efforts in trying to eradicate the problem and have ratified both the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. The state has also made changes in national law that shall promote and strengthen children's rights. Although the laws are strong, the protection for girls is insufficient and girls are vulnerable to being exploited by traffickers. The Government of Nepal, NGOs and several other authorities are working together to eradicate the problem, but the work needs be strengthened, coordinated and responsive to influencing factors simultaneously in order to achieve a long-term solution. This thesis suggest that cultural norms need to be challenged more and that the Government of Nepal needs to oversee how structural injustices affect opportunities for girls to take part of social benefits. In addition, knowledge about legal and moral rights needs to be increased among girls and in society as a whole, moreover the knowledge about trafficking and prostitution needs to be spread.

Les jeunes sont les premiers utilisateurs du réseau Internet. Celui-ci a permis le développement de certains contenus illicites, comme la pédopornographie. Les pouvoirs publics se retrouvent souvent impuissants face à l’évolution de ce phénomène, encore bien méconnu aujourd’hui. D’ailleurs, l’aspect international d’Internet met en concurrence différentes conceptions morales et culturelles qui posent des problèmes, notamment au niveau des définitions des notions. En outre, les adolescents ont tendance à imiter les adultes et plus spécialement, lorsque cela touche à la sexualité. Pourtant, les législateurs canadiens et français leur imposent certaines restrictions, qu’ils jugent justifiables et raisonnables. Toutefois, ces jeunes vivent entre une société virtuelle (Internet) et réelle gouvernée par une vision sexuée des choses et où le corps humain représente une valeur commerciale à exploiter. C’est ainsi que de nouveaux comportements apparaissent. Pour les supprimer, les mineurs sont devenus la principale catégorie de personnes à protéger en raison de leur vulnérabilité et le lien unificateur qu’ils représentent pour les pays. Ils deviennent ainsi le nouveau fondement de la moralité publique sur le réseau Internet, ce qui permet à l’État d’imposer sa vision morale de la sexualité, et notamment une norme de comportement. De plus, le droit criminel semble traiter de manière différente les délinquants sexuels qui représentent le groupe à neutraliser en raison du risque qu’ils engendrent. En effet, il semblerait qu’il y ait un certain retour de l’homme dangereux dans nos sociétés contemporaines en mal de sécurité. Il est clair que désormais, il n’est plus acceptable que des personnes présentant un risque réel pour la société puisse faire de nouvelles victimes, en l’occurrence mineure. Notre étude vise à examiner et à éclaircir les fondements de la rationalité du discours juridique relatif à la réglementation de la cyberpédopornographie. Pour cela, nous nous interrogerons sur l’impact des nouvelles technologies de l’information sur le droit criminel qui a, comme ces dernières, évolué dans nos sociétés contemporaines. Le législateur a été forcé de prendre en compte les nouvelles réalités qui n’existaient pas forcément, il y a quelques années. Le droit criminel, qui représente les moeurs de la société de son époque, semble, par ailleurs, s’orienter vers un droit social de revendication et subjectif. De nombreuses questions surviennent à savoir : faut-il condamner toutes les formes de pédopornographie au point d’accepter une ingérence importante de l’État dans notre vie intime? N’y-a-t’il pas un certain paternalisme de la part de l’État dans la façon de légiférer dans ce domaine? La morale n’est-elle pas la cause de ce retour à une importante sévérité dans ce domaine? D’ailleurs, ce paternalisme étatique ne montre-t-il pas également l’occasion pour les pouvoirs publics de contrôler, voire surveiller les internautes? / Young people are the primary users of the Internet. This has enabled the development of certain illegal content, like child pornography. Governments often find themselves powerless to change this growing phenomen that is still well unknown. Moreover, the international aspect of the Internet put in perspectives different moral and cultural conceptions causing problems, particularly in term of definitions of those concepts. In addition, teenagers tend to imitate adults especially when it relates to sexuality. However, Canadian and french law makers impose them some restrictions they consider justifiable and reasonable. Nevertheless, these young people live between a virtual society (Internet) and a real one governed by a sexual oriented view where the human body is see as a commercial value to exploit. As a result, new behaviors are appearing. To neutralize them, minors became the first category that need to be protected because of their vulnerability and the unifying bond that they represent for the country. From now on, they represent the new public morality foundation on the Internet, which let the State impose its moral vision of sexuality, and in particular a behaviour norm. Moreover, criminal law seems to treat different sex offenders who represent the group to neutralize because of the risk they represent. Indeed, it seems that there is a return of the dangerous man in our contemporary societies in need of security. It is now clear that it is more acceptable for people with a real risk to society could be more victims in this case minor. Our study aims to examine and clarify the foundations of rationality of legal discourse on the regulation of child pornography on the Internet. For this, we will question the impact of recent news technology on criminal law, which like those last evolved in our contemporary societies. The lawmaker was forced to take into account the new realities that were inevitably not existing few years ago. Criminal law, which represents the morals of the society of his era, seems also to move towards a social right of claim and subjective. Many questions arise including: does it take to condemn all kind of child pornography so, an important interference of the State in our private life can be accepted? Is there some paternalism from the State in its way of legislating? Is not Morality the cause of this return to a major severity in this area? Moreover, this State paternalism may be an opportunity for the authorities to control, even to watch over the internet users? / Réalisé en cotutelle avec l'Université de Paris-sud XI, France.

Alors que la compréhension des motivations sous-jacentes à la délinquance sexuelle, notamment en ce qui concerne la récidive, continue d’attirer l’attention des chercheurs, la compréhension des motivations entourant la première infraction sexuelle reste limitée. Cette absence de connaissance concernant l’apparition de la délinquance sexuelle reste un défi notamment pour la prévention du phénomène. Cette lacune complique divers aspects de la réinsertion sociale. Cela inclut le développement de programmes efficaces qui ciblent les besoins spécifiques des délinquants, la mise en place de mesures préventives, un manque de soutien des services de réinsertion, ainsi qu'une stigmatisation des délinquants sexuels par la société, entravant leur capacité à se réintégrer positivement. Comprendre les motivations derrière le comportement sexuel déviant nécessite de s’intéresser aux facteurs entourant le parcours de vie et le délit de l’individu. Il est nécessaire de comprendre les circonstances qui ont conduit à leurs actions, mais également la manière dont le passage à l’acte s’inscrit dans leur vie. Le but de la présente étude était de mettre en lumière les trajectoires de vie des individus qui ont commis une première infraction à caractère sexuel afin de mieux comprendre les motivations à commettre ce type d’acte criminel. Pour ce faire, une méthodologie qualitative a été utilisée au sein de laquelle douze personnes, recrutées en maison de transition et ayant commis un délit sexuel, ont été amenées à préciser leurs trajectoires de vie, de leur enfance à la commission de leur première infraction sexuelle. Il est apparu que les trajectoires des auteurs de délinquance sexuelle étaient très diversifiées et parsemées de difficultés. Ces difficultés rencontrées étaient propres aux participants et concernaient des sphères de vie multiples. À travers le parcours de ces individus, nous avons étudié la nature des délits qu’ils ont perpétrés. Notre objectif était de pénétrer au coeur de leurs motivations, d'explorer les mécanismes qui ont conduit à leur passage à l'acte, tout en examinant leur regard rétrospectif sur les crimes commis. À l’avenir, cela permet inévitablement de concevoir des programmes de réinsertion et de prévention de la récidive efficaces et adaptés aux besoins des individus concernés. / While understanding the motivations underlying sexual offending, particularly regarding recidivism, continues to attract researchers' attention, understanding the motivations surrounding the first sexual offense remains limited. This lack of knowledge regarding the onset of sexual offending remains a challenge, especially for preventing the phenomenon. This gap complicates various aspects of social reintegration, including the development of effective programs targeting offenders' specific needs, implementing preventive measures, lack of support from reintegration services, and societal stigmatization of sexual offenders, hindering their ability to reintegrate positively. Understanding the motivations behind deviant sexual behavior requires examining the life trajectories and offense of the individual. It is necessary to understand the circumstances that led to their actions and how the offense fits into their life. The purpose of this study was to shed light on the life trajectories of individuals who committed a first sexual offense to better understand the motivations behind this type of criminal act. To achieve this, a qualitative methodology was used in which twelve individuals, recruited from transition houses, and having committed a sexual offense, were asked to elaborate on their life trajectories, from childhood to the commission of their first sexual offense. It emerged that the trajectories of sexual offending authors were highly diverse and fraught with difficulties. These encountered difficulties were specific to the participants and concerned multiple spheres of life. Through the journeys of these individuals, we examined the nature of the offenses they committed. Our goal was to delve into their motivations, explore the mechanisms that led to their actions, and examine their retrospective view on the crimes committed. In the future, this inevitably allows for the design of effective reintegration and recidivism prevention programs tailored to the needs of the individuals involved.

The aim of this qualitative research study was to explore the influences of pornographic material on the sexual exploitation of children. An interpretive research method, based on phenomenological principles, was followed. A total of 18 semistructured interviews were conducted with sentenced sex offenders who had committed an offence against a child (a person under the age of 18). The research findings, obtained through a process of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), highlighted personal and family characteristics that could increase individuals’ susceptibility to the effect of exposure to pornographic material. Moreover, it was found that early, recurrent exposure to pornography results in physical, cognitive and behavioural influences that considerably increase the level of sexual satisfaction and need for instantaneous sexual gratification. This uncontrollable need for sexual gratification often results in destructive behaviour such as addiction to pornographic material, criminal sexual acts involving children and damage to the family system. The effect of sexually explicit material is furthermore intensified by the availability of pornographic material on the Internet, which considerably increases the likelihood of individuals being exposed to a variety of pornographic images, including illegal material such as child pornography. Based on the outcomes of the research study, it can be concluded that pornography does have an effect on human behaviour in relation to the sexual exploitation of children which necessitates the effective regulation of pornographic material, especially on the Internet, and the evaluation of the help profession’s approach to effectively deal with issues stemming from exposure to pornographic material / Psychology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

This thesis is an anthropological study of Internet sexual offending, more specifically the viewing of child abuse media. It is based on 17 months of participant-observation in UK group programs for individuals who had downloaded illegal child abuse media, semi-structured interviews with participants, program staff, and police, and staff focus groups. Through engaging directly with offenders and those managing them, it provides an in-depth, qualitative understanding of how Internet use and perceptions of online spaces play a key role in Internet sexual offending, while also asking broader questions about online sociality, morality, and effects on normative behaviour. The central argument posits that in moving beyond commonplace explanations for Internet offending, more attention must be given to Internet use, perceptions and constructions of online spaces, and effects on social norms to explain this phenomenon. It then follows to suggest that for some offenders, these elements can be instrumental in their sexualization of children and choice to view abusive media. The thesis specifically explores why and how some people in the UK engage with illegal child abuse media, with particular attention to notions of risk, childhood, morality, and the Internet. Employing Foucauldian and neo-Foucauldian theory, anthropology of the Internet, and constructionist theories of childhood, focus is placed on multiple areas: the potential social, emotional, sexual, and Internet-specific factors associated with offending; participants' relationships with the Internet and constructions of online spaces; participants' perceptions of childhood and children online and offline; and, societal and institutional efforts to respond to the above, including the larger justice system and fieldwork group program. The general research areas are social science of the Internet, childhood studies, human sexuality, group therapeutic processes, policy and law, and research methodology and ethics.

The aim of this qualitative research study was to explore the influences of pornographic material on the sexual exploitation of children. An interpretive research method, based on phenomenological principles, was followed. A total of 18 semistructured interviews were conducted with sentenced sex offenders who had committed an offence against a child (a person under the age of 18). The research findings, obtained through a process of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), highlighted personal and family characteristics that could increase individuals’ susceptibility to the effect of exposure to pornographic material. Moreover, it was found that early, recurrent exposure to pornography results in physical, cognitive and behavioural influences that considerably increase the level of sexual satisfaction and need for instantaneous sexual gratification. This uncontrollable need for sexual gratification often results in destructive behaviour such as addiction to pornographic material, criminal sexual acts involving children and damage to the family system. The effect of sexually explicit material is furthermore intensified by the availability of pornographic material on the Internet, which considerably increases the likelihood of individuals being exposed to a variety of pornographic images, including illegal material such as child pornography. Based on the outcomes of the research study, it can be concluded that pornography does have an effect on human behaviour in relation to the sexual exploitation of children which necessitates the effective regulation of pornographic material, especially on the Internet, and the evaluation of the help profession’s approach to effectively deal with issues stemming from exposure to pornographic material / Psychology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

我國以成年人為色情內容描述對象的管制規範（即成人色情言論），主要見於刑法第235條對「猥褻性色情內容」的刑罰規定以及相關傳播法規與兒童及少年福利法對「有害兒童之色情內容」的行政裁罰；至於以兒童為描述對象的限制（即兒童色情言論），則透過兒童及少年性交易防制條例第28條為處罰，在此色情言論管制的法規範體系下，係將「兒童色情言論」的處罰規定當作刑法第235條的特別法，當色情物品係描繪兒童從事色情活動時，不論在色情內容、犯罪行為態樣與刑度均廣泛地加重處罰。 然而，筆者以美國聯邦最高法院的相關判決作比較法研究，發現早在1982年的Ferber案判決與1990年的Osborne案判決，法院即指出管制「兒童色情言論」的公益目的在避免兒童遭受性虐待與剝削的「行為傷害」，而與管制其他色情言論內容所欲防止的「言論觀看傷害」有所不同，在保障兒童優勢利益的權衡下，兒童色情內容不受憲法言論自由保障，國家具有規制處罰的空間。2002年的Free Speech Coalition案判決，法院更清楚的認為國家管制虛擬兒童色情內容的規定乃屬違憲，因其並無行為傷害之故，後來國會雖在隔年仍繼續制定處罰兒童色情言論的規定，並引發許多憲法爭議，但聯邦最高法院在後續的Williams案判決及Whorley案判決仍未改變原先見解。 因此，本論文乃嘗試以「行為傷害」的避免作為管制兒童色情言論的核心目的，藉此與其他成人色情言論作區別，並建構國家限制兒童色情言論的界限與空間，其中包括，具體討論兒童色情內涵定義、網際網路對兒童色情犯罪之影響、兒童色情犯罪行為態樣的合憲性分析以及虛擬兒童色情可罰性問題。最後則根據筆者所形構的管制模式，對兒童及少年性交易防制條例第28條作規範論及立法論上的檢討。