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Esta dissertação visa analisar o uso no português brasileiro, doravante PB, da pista prosódica de duração de sílabas na produção e percepção de sentenças ambíguas do tipo SN1-V-SN2-Atributo, tais como A mãe encontrou a filha suada. Tais sentenças apresentam contextos em que pode haver reestruturação de frases fonológicas a depender da interpretação escolhida. Um dos trabalhos que guiaram esta pesquisa foi o de MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006), no qual os autores também observaram sentenças com ambiguidade devido à presença de um atributo que pode se referir ao sujeito ou ao objeto da oração. Fonologicamente, tais leituras podem ser explicadas pelo fato de o atributo poder ou não se juntar a seu núcleo na construção do domínio da frase fonológica, em que, se há fronteira, um alongamento é esperado (NESPOR & VOGEL, 1996). ANGELO & SANTOS (2012, 2015) concluíram que os falantes não realizaram alongamento significativo, porém, observaram uma tendência a produzir sentenças de aposição não local mais longas. O que se propõe, então, é que o alongamento é um fenômeno existente na língua, mas é opcional. Se isto é verdade, sempre que ele for feito, a sentença deve ser interpretada como não local. Caso contrário, haveria uma variação nas respostas perceptuais ou preferência por aposição local (Princípio da Aposição Local verificado por MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006) no PB com base no Princípio de Late Closure apontado por FRAZIER (1979)). Dois testes foram realizados: No de produção, além dos 30 falantes de Angelo & Santos, mais 20 foram escolhidos e outros 10 recuperados para que lessem ambas as versões de cada uma das 9 sentenças em meio a histórias que guiavam a um ou outro significado, totalizando 720 dados. No de percepção, foram selecionadas as 3 versões mais longas (de aposição não local) e as 3 mais curtas (de aposição local) do teste de produção para cada sentença, em um teste onde 30 ouvintes selecionaram através de imagens qual a interpretação obtida, totalizando 1620 dados. Primeiramente, os resultados apontaram para diferenças significativas observando o tipo de estrutura (os falantes alongaram e acertaram as não locais). Por tipo de sentença, a diferença foi significativa na maioria delas, confirmando a predição de que, ainda que o alongamento seja opcional na produção, uma vez realizado, ele serve como condutor para uma interpretação não local. Para as sentenças locais, o Princípio de Aposição Local verificado no PB por MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006) também foi observado em nosso experimento. Por fim, os resultados apontam para 2 tipos de estruturas que podem interferir no processo de alongamento: Sentenças em que o atributo é formado por adjetivos deverbais (geração de uma fronteira CP) e sentenças que permitem construções de small clause (bloqueio da reestruturação). / The aim of this thesis is to analyze the use of syllable duration in Brazilian Portuguese (henceforth BP) as a prosodic cue in the perception and production of syntactically ambiguous sentences with a NP1-V-NP2-attribute structure (lit. The mother has found her daughter sweating). This type of sentence is produced in contexts where phonological phrases may be restructured, depending on how the sentences are interpreted. A reference for the present research was the study by MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006), who also found sentences which ambiguity was due to the presence of an attribute that may refer to either the subject or the object of the clause. Phonologically, interpretations of the above-mentioned structure can be explained by the fact that attributes may or may not join the head in the construction of the phonological phrase domain, because lengthening is expected when there is a boundary (NESPOR & VOGEL, 1996). ANGELO & SANTOS (2015) found that the speakers in their study did not make significant lengthening; however, they tended to produce high attachment in longer sentences. It is suggested, therefore, that although lengthening exists in BP as a phenomenon, it is optional. If this is actually true, sentences should be interpreted as having high attachment whenever lengthening is produced. Otherwise, it is assumed that there is variation in perceptual responses or preference for low attachment (Low Attachment Principle, found in PB by MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006), based on the Late Closure Principle proposed by Frazier (1979)). Data were collected with two tests. In the sentence-reading production test, 30 speakers from the study by ANGELO & SANTOS (2015)) and 20 new speakers read one version of each sentence, while 10 out of the former 30 read two versions, thus the corpus was made of a total of 720 sentences. The perception test used the three longest versions (with high attachment) and the three shortest versions (with low attachment) of each sentence. The informants who took the test chose the image that best represented the meaning that they assigned to each sentence. A total of 1620 data were produced. Overall results showed significant differences for type of structure (the informants lengthened and identified high attachments correctly). For sentence type, there were significant differences in most sentences, thus confirming the hypothesis that lengthening is optional in production and, once it has been performed, it can lead a sentence to be interpreted as having high attachment. For sentences with low attachment, the Low Attachment Principle suggested by MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006) also occurred in our experiment. The findings signal two types of structures that may interfere with the lengthening process: sentences whose attribute is formed by deverbal adjectives (generation of a CP phrasal boundary) and sentences that allow small clause constructions (restructuring is blocked).

La législation irakienne définit le contrat comme étant l’union d'une offre faite par la partie contractante avec l'acceptation d'une autre partie et ce de manière à établir les effets dans l'objet du contrat. Ainsi, la place occupée par le contrat de vente en droit irakien est importante. Lorsque les parties relèvent d’ordres juridiques différents, leurs rapports sont régis par le droit international privé, qui détermine le tribunal apte à trancher le litige. Cette thèse de doctorat vise alors à vérifier la capacité à appliquer les règles de conflit de compétence internationale en droit irakien sur des contrats « virtuels » ou dématérialisés. Comme nous le verrons, dans ce domaine, « virtuel » ne veut pas pour autant dire que ce contrat n’est pas réel, comme le spécifie très clairement la loi irakienne. Il reste rattaché au territoire. Le problème est que le droit irakien, en ignorant les notions de frontière et de territorialité, ne reconnaît pas sa propre « immatérialité ». Cette réalité dans les textes et la pratique implique que les opérations qui se produisent sur Internet ne sont pas prises en compte par les règles de conflits de compétence internationale. C’est la raison pour laquelle nous avons souhaité vérifier et comprendre la capacité et l’effectivité des règles de conflit de compétence internationale dans le cadre de litiges sur Internet. Ce faisant, nous espérons mettre en lumière les règles les plus appropriées, qui correspondent le mieux à la nature du contrat virtuel, à savoir son immatérialité. Pour ce faire, nous entreverrons quelques développements sur les litiges de l’Internet. Ainsi nous disposons de deux domaines de recherche : un premier au niveau de la législation nationale, comme le droit français et le droit américain ; un deuxième au niveau des conventions internationales, comme les conventions des Nations-Unies en 2005, la convention de la Haye en 2005, la convention de Bruxelles en 1968 ou encore les règlements de Bruxelles 2000 et 2012. / Iraqi law defines the contract as the union of an offer made by the contracting party with the acceptance of another party and that in order to establish the effects in the contract. The place of the sales contract under Iraqi law is important. When the parties come from different legal orders, their relations are governed by the private international law which determines the court will decide. This thesis research aims to test the ability to apply the international rules of conflict of jurisdiction under Iraqi law on the virtual contract, which is paperless. We shall see, this is not to mean however that the contract is not real, as clearly specifies Iraqi law. It remains attached to the territory. In contrast, the Iraqi law does not recognize its immaterial that meanwhile ignores borders and notions of territoriality. This reality in the texts and practices therefore makes transactions that occur on the Internet are not taken into account by the rules of international jurisdiction conflicts. That is why, we wanted to check and understand the capacity and effectiveness of international jurisdiction conflict rules in the context of Internet disputes. So we will try to find the most appropriate rules, consistent with the nature of the virtual contract, namely its immateriality. This search will reveal developments in litigation of the Internet. Thus, it takes two directions: first at the national legislation, such as French and US law. Second, at the stage of international conventions such as the United Nations Conventions 2005, Hague Convention, the Brussels Convention 1968 and the 2000 and 2012 regulations.

Esta dissertação visa analisar o uso no português brasileiro, doravante PB, da pista prosódica de duração de sílabas na produção e percepção de sentenças ambíguas do tipo SN1-V-SN2-Atributo, tais como A mãe encontrou a filha suada. Tais sentenças apresentam contextos em que pode haver reestruturação de frases fonológicas a depender da interpretação escolhida. Um dos trabalhos que guiaram esta pesquisa foi o de MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006), no qual os autores também observaram sentenças com ambiguidade devido à presença de um atributo que pode se referir ao sujeito ou ao objeto da oração. Fonologicamente, tais leituras podem ser explicadas pelo fato de o atributo poder ou não se juntar a seu núcleo na construção do domínio da frase fonológica, em que, se há fronteira, um alongamento é esperado (NESPOR & VOGEL, 1996). ANGELO & SANTOS (2012, 2015) concluíram que os falantes não realizaram alongamento significativo, porém, observaram uma tendência a produzir sentenças de aposição não local mais longas. O que se propõe, então, é que o alongamento é um fenômeno existente na língua, mas é opcional. Se isto é verdade, sempre que ele for feito, a sentença deve ser interpretada como não local. Caso contrário, haveria uma variação nas respostas perceptuais ou preferência por aposição local (Princípio da Aposição Local verificado por MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006) no PB com base no Princípio de Late Closure apontado por FRAZIER (1979)). Dois testes foram realizados: No de produção, além dos 30 falantes de Angelo & Santos, mais 20 foram escolhidos e outros 10 recuperados para que lessem ambas as versões de cada uma das 9 sentenças em meio a histórias que guiavam a um ou outro significado, totalizando 720 dados. No de percepção, foram selecionadas as 3 versões mais longas (de aposição não local) e as 3 mais curtas (de aposição local) do teste de produção para cada sentença, em um teste onde 30 ouvintes selecionaram através de imagens qual a interpretação obtida, totalizando 1620 dados. Primeiramente, os resultados apontaram para diferenças significativas observando o tipo de estrutura (os falantes alongaram e acertaram as não locais). Por tipo de sentença, a diferença foi significativa na maioria delas, confirmando a predição de que, ainda que o alongamento seja opcional na produção, uma vez realizado, ele serve como condutor para uma interpretação não local. Para as sentenças locais, o Princípio de Aposição Local verificado no PB por MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006) também foi observado em nosso experimento. Por fim, os resultados apontam para 2 tipos de estruturas que podem interferir no processo de alongamento: Sentenças em que o atributo é formado por adjetivos deverbais (geração de uma fronteira CP) e sentenças que permitem construções de small clause (bloqueio da reestruturação). / The aim of this thesis is to analyze the use of syllable duration in Brazilian Portuguese (henceforth BP) as a prosodic cue in the perception and production of syntactically ambiguous sentences with a NP1-V-NP2-attribute structure (lit. The mother has found her daughter sweating). This type of sentence is produced in contexts where phonological phrases may be restructured, depending on how the sentences are interpreted. A reference for the present research was the study by MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006), who also found sentences which ambiguity was due to the presence of an attribute that may refer to either the subject or the object of the clause. Phonologically, interpretations of the above-mentioned structure can be explained by the fact that attributes may or may not join the head in the construction of the phonological phrase domain, because lengthening is expected when there is a boundary (NESPOR & VOGEL, 1996). ANGELO & SANTOS (2015) found that the speakers in their study did not make significant lengthening; however, they tended to produce high attachment in longer sentences. It is suggested, therefore, that although lengthening exists in BP as a phenomenon, it is optional. If this is actually true, sentences should be interpreted as having high attachment whenever lengthening is produced. Otherwise, it is assumed that there is variation in perceptual responses or preference for low attachment (Low Attachment Principle, found in PB by MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006), based on the Late Closure Principle proposed by Frazier (1979)). Data were collected with two tests. In the sentence-reading production test, 30 speakers from the study by ANGELO & SANTOS (2015)) and 20 new speakers read one version of each sentence, while 10 out of the former 30 read two versions, thus the corpus was made of a total of 720 sentences. The perception test used the three longest versions (with high attachment) and the three shortest versions (with low attachment) of each sentence. The informants who took the test chose the image that best represented the meaning that they assigned to each sentence. A total of 1620 data were produced. Overall results showed significant differences for type of structure (the informants lengthened and identified high attachments correctly). For sentence type, there were significant differences in most sentences, thus confirming the hypothesis that lengthening is optional in production and, once it has been performed, it can lead a sentence to be interpreted as having high attachment. For sentences with low attachment, the Low Attachment Principle suggested by MAGALHÃES & MAIA (2006) also occurred in our experiment. The findings signal two types of structures that may interfere with the lengthening process: sentences whose attribute is formed by deverbal adjectives (generation of a CP phrasal boundary) and sentences that allow small clause constructions (restructuring is blocked).

Este estudo tem por escopo analisar o conceito das cláusulas de tax sparing e matching credit, os principais argumentos favoráveis e contrários à utilização desses mecanismos e as hipóteses em que tais cláusulas são adotadas, nos âmbitos nacional e internacional. Sabe-se que, em um primeiro momento, a Organização para a Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico (OCDE) chegou a recomendar a utilização das cláusulas de tax sparing nos acordos de bitributação celebrados entre países com graus diferentes de desenvolvimento econômico, como uma forma de atrair investimentos para os países menos desenvolvidos. No entanto, em relatório publicado em 1998, denominado Tax sparing: a reconsideration, a OCDE reviu sua posição inicial sobre o assunto, passando então a desencorajar o uso dessas cláusulas por seus países membros, através de diversas críticas e questionamentos acerca de sua adoção. O Brasil, por sua vez, desde os primeiros acordos de bitributação celebrados, nos primórdios da década de 1960, tem firmado a política de sempre negociar cláusulas de tax sparing e matching credit, especialmente nos acordos celebrados com países desenvolvidos. Considerando-se tal cenário, pretende-se, com o presente trabalho, estudar as cláusulas de tax sparing e matching credit de forma profunda, de modo a oferecer subsídios para um adequado enfrentamento da questão em futuras negociações de acordos de bitributação pelo País. / The purpose of this study is to analyze the concept of tax sparing and matching credit clauses, the main arguments for and against the use of these mechanisms and the circumstances in which such clauses are adopted, nationally and internationally. It is known that, at first, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) used to recommend the inclusion of tax sparing clauses in double taxation conventions concluded between countries with different levels of economic development, as a way of attracting investments for less developed countries. However, the OECD revised its initial position on the subject in a report published in 1998, called \"Tax sparing: a reconsideration\", discouraging the use of such clauses by its member countries through various criticisms and questions about their adoption. In its turn, since the first double taxation agreements concluded in the early 1960s the Brazilian policy regarding the matter has always been to negotiate tax sparing and matching credit clauses, especially in conventions with developed countries. Given such a scenario, this paper aims at studying tax sparing and matching credit clauses deeply, in order to provide devices for an accurate understanding of the issue in future negotiations of double taxation conventions by the Country.

Este estudo tem por escopo analisar o conceito das cláusulas de tax sparing e matching credit, os principais argumentos favoráveis e contrários à utilização desses mecanismos e as hipóteses em que tais cláusulas são adotadas, nos âmbitos nacional e internacional. Sabe-se que, em um primeiro momento, a Organização para a Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico (OCDE) chegou a recomendar a utilização das cláusulas de tax sparing nos acordos de bitributação celebrados entre países com graus diferentes de desenvolvimento econômico, como uma forma de atrair investimentos para os países menos desenvolvidos. No entanto, em relatório publicado em 1998, denominado Tax sparing: a reconsideration, a OCDE reviu sua posição inicial sobre o assunto, passando então a desencorajar o uso dessas cláusulas por seus países membros, através de diversas críticas e questionamentos acerca de sua adoção. O Brasil, por sua vez, desde os primeiros acordos de bitributação celebrados, nos primórdios da década de 1960, tem firmado a política de sempre negociar cláusulas de tax sparing e matching credit, especialmente nos acordos celebrados com países desenvolvidos. Considerando-se tal cenário, pretende-se, com o presente trabalho, estudar as cláusulas de tax sparing e matching credit de forma profunda, de modo a oferecer subsídios para um adequado enfrentamento da questão em futuras negociações de acordos de bitributação pelo País. / The purpose of this study is to analyze the concept of tax sparing and matching credit clauses, the main arguments for and against the use of these mechanisms and the circumstances in which such clauses are adopted, nationally and internationally. It is known that, at first, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) used to recommend the inclusion of tax sparing clauses in double taxation conventions concluded between countries with different levels of economic development, as a way of attracting investments for less developed countries. However, the OECD revised its initial position on the subject in a report published in 1998, called \"Tax sparing: a reconsideration\", discouraging the use of such clauses by its member countries through various criticisms and questions about their adoption. In its turn, since the first double taxation agreements concluded in the early 1960s the Brazilian policy regarding the matter has always been to negotiate tax sparing and matching credit clauses, especially in conventions with developed countries. Given such a scenario, this paper aims at studying tax sparing and matching credit clauses deeply, in order to provide devices for an accurate understanding of the issue in future negotiations of double taxation conventions by the Country.

The current study investigates how locative clauses and existential constructions are realized and differentiated in the language of Khowar [ISO 693–3: khw] (Hindu Kush Indo-Aryan, HKIA). Khowar is one of several under-researched languages in the Hindu Kush, and as of yet there is no comprehensive description of its linguistic structure. The data for this study was provided by Afsar Ali Khan (local linguist and native speaker of Khowar), in the form of a collection of transcribed traditional Khowar stories, told by speakers in the community. Samples of locative clauses and existential constructions were collected from the corpus, mainly by use of the concordance tool of Toolbox, after which an analysis was carried out. The results show that word order is the main strategy for differentiating locational-existential constructions and locative clauses in Khowar, that semantically bleached posture verbs are not a present strategy for creating locative clauses nor existential constructions, and that there are certain story-opening sequences with existential constructions that are typical of the genre represented by the data. Future research is suggested to focus on negative existentials in Khowar, the full distributional pattern of the actual and inferential copula in other types of non-verbal predication, and the extended use of the 3rd person singular past tense form of the actual copula, ɔʃɔj, which is no longer sensitive to the animacy distinction otherwise present in the Khowar verbal system.

In complex clause constructions, the dependent clause can either precede or succeed the main clause. In a study on a selection of Indo-Aryan languages spoken on the Indian subcontinent (Hook 1987), a gradual transition between pre- and postposing languages was found, when moving from the southeast to the northwest in the area. In their relative vicinity in the Hindukush area, a sub-group of Indo-Aryan languages are spoken, commonly known by the tentative term “Dardic”. These languages are said to mainly have the dependent clause preceding the main clause (left-branching), and that this feature is shared by the neighbouring languages. This would mean a breach with the continuum described by Hook. In the present comparative study on the Dardic languages spoken in northern Pakistan, complex clauses of adverbial and complement types were studied in an attempt to confirm this proposition. The languages were found to have two competing branching structures where the indigenous, dominating left-branching structure possibly is being challenged by an imported right branching pattern, especially in complement clauses, possibly due to Persian or Urdu influence. A similar transition between more left-branching languages towards languages with a higher degree of right branching structures were found when moving from east to west in the geographical area studied. / I underordnande satskonstruktioner kan bisatsen antingen föregå eller följa på huvudsatsen. I en studie på ett urval indoariska språk som talas på den indiska subkontinenten (Hook 1987) fann man en gradvis skiftning mellan språk med bisatsen till vänster om huvudsatsen (vänsterställda), via språk som tillät båda placeringar av bisatsen, till språk som enbart hade bisatsen till höger om huvudsatsen (högerställda). Detta när man rörde sig från sydöstra Indien i riktning mot nordväst. I Hindukush-området, inte allt för långt ifrån denna region, talas en undergrupp av indoariska språk som länge gått under den provisoriska termen ”dardiska” språk. Om dessa språk har det hävdats att de har bisatsen till vänster om huvudsatsen, ett drag som också ska delas med närliggande språk i området. Om detta stämmer skulle det innebära en brytning av det kontinuum Hook beskrev. I denna jämförande studie på några indo-ariska språk som talas i norra Pakistan studerades underordnade adverbiala och nominala bisatser i ett försök att utreda om dessa verkligen är vänsterställda. Språken befanns ha två konkurrerande placeringsmönster där en inhemsk och starkt dominerande vänsterställd struktur eventuellt håller på att utmanas av en importerad högerställd struktur, särskilt i nominala objektsatser, som möjligen kommit in i språken via inflytande från persiska eller urdu. Ett kontinuum liknande Hooks mellan språk med primärt vänsterställda bisatser till språk med en allt högre andel högerställda bisatser hittades i en rörelse från öst till väst i området.

This article offers an academic and practical overview for the drafting of international arbitration clauses, from an international Latin American approach and with special emphasis on the energy and construction industries.The authors begin by analyzing the elements of the existence of the arbitral clause and putting forward certain fundamental and general cautionary notes. Then they go on to analyze key elements to include in an arbitral clause, the elements which inclusion is recommended, the elements that might be convenient to include, and others that is best to leave out. The article ends with a conclusion regarding the mindset that parties should have when drafting arbitration clauses. / Este artículo ofrece una revisión de la experiencia académica y práctica para la redacción de cláusulas arbitrales, desde un enfoque internacional latinoamericano, y con especial énfasis en las industrias de la energía y la construcción.Los autores comienzan analizando los elementos de la existencia de la cláusula arbitral y formulando ciertas prevenciones fundamentales y generales. Luego pasan a analizar los elementos clave a incorporar en la cláusula arbitral, ciertos elementos que son recomendables a incorporar, otros tantos que puede ser conveniente incorporar y algunos que es mejor dejar fuera. El artículo finaliza con una conclusión respecto al enfoque que han de tener las partes al redactar la cláusula arbitral.