Organizations strategically design the physical work environment to enhance employees' creativity. Understanding the impact of workspace layout on individual perceptions of creativity across generational cohorts can be vital to sustaining organizational competitiveness. Researchers have theorized that workspace layout affects employees' perceptions of creativity; however, few studies have looked at the effect of generational cohort on this relationship. A quantitative study was conducted to examine the effect of workspace layout on individual perceptions of creativity across generational cohorts. A sample of 162 participants completed an online demographics questionnaire as well as aKEYS, a modified version of the KEYS to Creativity and Innovation instrument. An ANOVA was used to determine whether generational cohort and workspace layouts affected the participants' individual perceptions of creativity. Results did not support the theory that workspace layout and generational cohort affected individual perceptions of creativity. However, these nonsignificant results can be used strategically by organizations to design physical workspaces that foster individual perceptions of creativity in order to attract and retain a diverse workforce by accommodating employees equally rather than on generational cohort membership. Social change implications are that the results can provide organizations with an understanding of ways in which they can effectively treat and meet the needs of the workforce as a whole, rather than develop strategies based on generational cohort membership.

A segmented market, according to traditional methods, appears increasingly difficult in mature consumer markets. A common explanation is that the mature markets are often characterised by over-supply which results in a great variety of choices for the consumer. Furthermore, the consumer of today has a more complex and flexible purchase behaviour which is difficult to catch. This makes consumer segmentation difficult. International studies indicate that dividing consumers into generation cohorts might be advantageous in understanding consumers of today. For actors in the marketplace it is important to know their target groups to be able to attract them. The purpose of the present study is to describe and compare the generations, Generation Y (1978-1994) and 55 plus (1938-1953), with a starting point in a basic model of the purchase process and purchase behaviour. A secondary purpose of the study is to give some normative recommendations. The empirical part of the study focuses on the Swedish consumer market. The study is constructed by a combined design of methods. The initial part is qualitative and contains 16 in-depth interviews. After completing the interviews, a literature review was carried out. The last part of the empricial data collection is quantitative and based on a survey. The study shows differences in abilities and procedures to handle great information quantities and to avoid “information overload”. The two generations show different purchase behaviour in many respects, driven by different needs. Generation Y is more driven by social risk and social influence than the 55 plus cohort. Generation Y is tempted by the “right” brands, that are socially accepted and considered ”hot”. The younger generation endeavours to buy at the lowest price and therefore they have in general a low and often false loyalty vis-à-vis the stores. 55 plus, however, have in common a high and true loyalty vis-à-vis the stores. These older consumers are attracted by, and to great extent use, stores and employees which are regarded as competent and service-minded. In conclusion, generation Y could to a high degree be considered as emotional when choosing products but rational in their choice of distribution channel. 55 plus, on the other hand, is more rational when choosing products but emotional in their choice of distribution channel. Based on these result, we propose that the two generation cohorts should be approached in different ways, thus questioning a standardised mass marketing approach. Moreover, the study indicates that traditional marketing methods should be questioned and more focus should be given to emerging communication channels, for instance Internet-based communication channels, brand ambassadors and product placement. Keywords: Consumer behaviour, Generation Y, Generation 55 plus, Market communication, Segmentation, generation cohorts. Instructor: Ph D Anders Parment / Marknadssegmentering efter traditionella metoder ter sig allt svårare på mogna konsumentmarknader. Vanliga förklaringar till detta är att mogna marknader oftast präglas av utbudsöverskott, med ett stort antal valmöjligheter för konsumenten som följd. Därtill har nutidens konsumenter ett allt mer komplext, flexibelt och svårfångat köpmönster, vilket försvårar en segmentering. Internationella studier indikerar istället att en generationsindelning kan vara fördelaktig för att gruppera och förstå dagens konsumenter. För marknadsaktörer är det viktigt att känna sin målgrupp för att effektivt kunna attrahera dessa. Syftet med denna studie är att med utgångspunkt i en grundmodell av köpprocessen beskriva och jämföra generationerna Y (1978-1994) samt 55 plus (1938-1953) köpbeteende. Ett delsyfte är också att ge några normativa rekommendationer utifrån studiens resultat. Denna studie är avgränsad till privata konsumenter inom den svenska konsumtionsmarknaden. Studien bygger på en kombinerad metoddesign. Initialskedet är kvalitativt och består av 16 djupintervjuer. Efter dessa har en litteraturstudie genomförts. Den senare delen av studien är kvantitativ till sin karaktär och består främst av en enkätstudie. Studien visar på skillnader i förmåga samt tillvägagångssätt att hantera stora informationsmängder och undvika ”information overload”. Generationerna har i stora delar olika köpbeteenden samt drivs även av olika behov. Generation Y styrs mer än 55 plus av social risk samt social påverkan. Generation Y lockas av ”rätt” varumärken, vilka är socialt accepterade och betraktas som ”inne”. Dessa varor strävar den yngre generationen att köpa till lägsta pris och har därför generellt en låg och ofta falsk lojalitet mot butiker. 55 plus har istället generellt en hög och sann lojalitet mot inköpsställen. Dessa konsumenter attraheras och använder i hög grad butiker och personal som uppfattas som kompetenta och serviceinriktade. Sammanfattningsvis är Generation Y i hög grad emotionell i valet av produkter men rationell i val av distributionskanal. 55 plus å andra sidan är mer rationell i val av produkter men emotionella i sina val av distributionskanaler. Dessa resultat innebär att generationerna bör bearbetas på olika sätt och standardiserad massmarknadsföring skall ifrågasättas. Studien indikerar även att traditionella marknadsföringsmetoder bör omprövas och mer fokus ges till ”nya” alternativa kommunikationskanaler, exempelvis alternativa Internetbaserade kommunikationskanaler, varumärkesambassadörer samt produktplaceringar och detta främst för Generation Y. Nyckelord: Köpbeteende, Generation Y, Generation 55 plus, Marknadskommunikation, Segmentering, Generations kohorter. Handledare: Ph D Anders Parment

<p>A segmented market, according to traditional methods, appears increasingly difficult in mature consumer markets. A common explanation is that the mature markets are often characterised by over-supply which results in a great variety of choices for the consumer. Furthermore, the consumer of today has a more complex and flexible purchase behaviour which is difficult to catch. This makes consumer segmentation difficult. International studies indicate that dividing consumers into generation cohorts might be advantageous in understanding consumers of today. For actors in the marketplace it is important to know their target groups to be able to attract them. The purpose of the present study is to describe and compare the generations, Generation Y (1978-1994) and 55 plus (1938-1953), with a starting point in a basic model of the purchase process and purchase behaviour. A secondary purpose of the study is to give some normative recommendations.</p><p>The empirical part of the study focuses on the Swedish consumer market. The study is constructed by a combined design of methods. The initial part is qualitative and contains 16 in-depth interviews. After completing the interviews, a literature review was carried out. The last part of the empricial data collection is quantitative and based on a survey.</p><p>The study shows differences in abilities and procedures to handle great information quantities and to avoid “information overload”. The two generations show different purchase behaviour in many respects, driven by different needs. Generation Y is more driven by social risk and social influence than the 55 plus cohort. Generation Y is tempted by the “right” brands, that are socially accepted and considered ”hot”. The younger generation endeavours to buy at the lowest price and therefore they have in general a low and often false loyalty vis-à-vis the stores. 55 plus, however, have in common a high and true loyalty vis-à-vis the stores. These older consumers are attracted by, and to great extent use, stores and employees which are regarded as competent and service-minded. In conclusion, generation Y could to a high degree be considered as emotional when choosing products but rational in their choice of distribution channel. 55 plus, on the other hand, is more rational when choosing products but emotional in their choice of distribution channel.</p><p>Based on these result, we propose that the two generation cohorts should be approached in different ways, thus questioning a standardised mass marketing approach. Moreover, the study indicates that traditional marketing methods should be questioned and more focus should be given to emerging communication channels, for instance Internet-based communication channels, brand ambassadors and product placement.</p><p>Keywords: Consumer behaviour, Generation Y, Generation 55 plus, Market communication, Segmentation, generation cohorts.</p><p>Instructor: Ph D Anders Parment</p> / <p>Marknadssegmentering efter traditionella metoder ter sig allt svårare på mogna konsumentmarknader. Vanliga förklaringar till detta är att mogna marknader oftast präglas av utbudsöverskott, med ett stort antal valmöjligheter för konsumenten som följd. Därtill har nutidens konsumenter ett allt mer komplext, flexibelt och svårfångat köpmönster, vilket försvårar en segmentering. Internationella studier indikerar istället att en generationsindelning kan vara fördelaktig för att gruppera och förstå dagens konsumenter. För marknadsaktörer är det viktigt att känna sin målgrupp för att effektivt kunna attrahera dessa. Syftet med denna studie är att med utgångspunkt i en grundmodell av köpprocessen beskriva och jämföra generationerna Y (1978-1994) samt 55 plus (1938-1953) köpbeteende. Ett delsyfte är också att ge några normativa rekommendationer utifrån studiens resultat.</p><p>Denna studie är avgränsad till privata konsumenter inom den svenska konsumtionsmarknaden. Studien bygger på en kombinerad metoddesign. Initialskedet är kvalitativt och består av 16 djupintervjuer. Efter dessa har en litteraturstudie genomförts. Den senare delen av studien är kvantitativ till sin karaktär och består främst av en enkätstudie.</p><p>Studien visar på skillnader i förmåga samt tillvägagångssätt att hantera stora informationsmängder och undvika ”information overload”. Generationerna har i stora delar olika köpbeteenden samt drivs även av olika behov. Generation Y styrs mer än 55 plus av social risk samt social påverkan. Generation Y lockas av ”rätt” varumärken, vilka är socialt accepterade och betraktas som ”inne”. Dessa varor strävar den yngre generationen att köpa till lägsta pris och har därför generellt en låg och ofta falsk lojalitet mot butiker. 55 plus har istället generellt en hög och sann lojalitet mot inköpsställen. Dessa konsumenter attraheras och använder i hög grad butiker och personal som uppfattas som kompetenta och serviceinriktade. Sammanfattningsvis är Generation Y i hög grad emotionell i valet av produkter men rationell i val av distributionskanal. 55 plus å andra sidan är mer rationell i val av produkter men emotionella i sina val av distributionskanaler.</p><p>Dessa resultat innebär att generationerna bör bearbetas på olika sätt och standardiserad massmarknadsföring skall ifrågasättas. Studien indikerar även att traditionella marknadsföringsmetoder bör omprövas och mer fokus ges till ”nya” alternativa kommunikationskanaler, exempelvis alternativa Internetbaserade kommunikationskanaler, varumärkesambassadörer samt produktplaceringar och detta främst för Generation Y.</p><p>Nyckelord: Köpbeteende, Generation Y, Generation 55 plus, Marknadskommunikation, Segmentering, Generations kohorter.</p><p>Handledare: Ph D Anders Parment</p>

INTRODUÇÃO:A rigidez arterial aumentada é um importante determinante do risco cardiovascular e um forte preditor de morbimortalidade. Além disso, estudos demonstram que o enrijecimento vascular pode estar associado a fatores genéticos e metabólicos. Portanto,os objetivos do presente estudo são determinar a herdabilidade da velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP) e avaliar a associação do perfil lipídico e do controle glicêmico com o fenótipo de rigidez arterial em uma população brasileira.MÉTODOS:Foram selecionados 1675 indivíduos (ambos os gêneros com idade entre 18 e 102 anos) distribuídos em 109 famílias residentes no município de Baependi-MG. A VOP carótida-femoral foi avaliada de forma não invasiva através de um dispositivo automático.As variáveis lipídicas e a glicemia de jejum foram determinadas pelo método enzimático colorimétrico. Os níveis de hemoglobina glicada (HbA1c) foram determinados pelo método de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. As estimativas da herdabilidade da VOP foram calculadas utilizando-se a metodologia de componentes de variância implementadas no software SOLAR. RESULTADOS: A herdabilidade estimada para a VOP foi de 26%, sendo ajustada para idade, gênero, HbA1c e pressão arterial média. Os níveis de HbA1c foram associados a rigidez arterial, onde a elevação de uma unidade percentual da HbA1c representou um incremento de 54% na chance de risco para rigidez arterial aumentada. As variáveis lipídicas (LDL-c, HDL-c, colesterol não- HDL-c, colesterol total e triglicérides) apresentaram fraca correlação com a VOP. Além disso, uma análise de regressão linear estratificada para idade (ponto de corte >= 45 anos) demonstrou uma relação inversa entre LDL-c e VOP em mulheres com idade >= 45 anos. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados indicam que a VOP apresenta herdabilidade intermediária (26%); a HbA1c esta fortemente associada a rigidez arterial aumentada; o LDL-c é inversamente relacionado com a VOP em mulheres com idade >= 45 anos, possivelmente devido às alterações metabólicas associadas à falência ovariana / INTRODUCTION: Increased central arterial stiffness is an important determinant of cardiovascular risk and a strong predictor of morbimortality. Moreover, studies showed that vascular stiffening can be associated with genetic and metabolic factors. Thus, the aims of this study are to estimate the heritability of pulse wave velocity (PWV) and to assess the association of lipid profile and glycemic control with arterial stiffness in a sample from the Brazilian population. METHODS: For this study, 1675 individuals (both genders aged from 18 to 102 years) were selected and they were distributed within 109 families residents in the municipality of Baependi - MG. The PWV was measured with a non-invasive automatic device. Lipid profile parameters and fasting glucose were determined by enzymatic colorimetric method. HbA1c levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Variance component approaches implemented in the SOLAR software were applied to estimate the heritability of PWV. RESULTS: Heritability estimates for carotid-femoral PWV was 26%, after adjustment for age, gender, HbA1c, and mean blood pressure. HbA1c levels were associated with arterial stiffness and the elevation of a single unit percentage of HbA1c represented an increase of 54 % in the odds of increased arterial stiffness. The lipid variables (LDL-c, HDL-c, non-HDL-c, total cholesterol and triglycerides) presented weak correlation with PWV. In addition, a linear regression analysis stratified by age (cutoff >= 45 years) showed an inverse relation between LDL-c and PWV in women aged 45 or older. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that PWV demonstrated an intermediate heritability (26%); HbA1c proved to be a good marker for risk stratification for increased arterial stiffness; LDL-c was inversely related with PWV in women aged 45 or older, possibly due to the metabolic alterations associated with ovarian failure

O objetivo desta tese foi o estudo da variabilidade temporal, crescimento e produção do zooplâncton metazoário, com ênfase sobre estágios imaturos de copépodes, na região costeira de Ubatuba (SP, Brasil). Para tal, a comunidade zooplanctônica foi estudada durante as estações de verão e inverno em regime de dias alternados, para os anos de 2009 a 2011, através de coletas realizadas com redes de malha de 20 e 100 m. Índices ecológicos como densidade, diversidade e equitabilidade foram calculados. Os estágios imaturos de copépodes foram submetidos a experimentos de coortes artificiais em quatro classes de tamanho (50-80, 80-100, 100-150 e 150-200 m) para a determinação das taxas de crescimento de 14 táxons em diferentes estágios de desenvolvimento. A biomassa foi estimada através de equações de regressão comprimento-peso para o posterior cálculo da produção secundária. A incidência e possíveis efeitos de um protista alveolado parasita (Ellobiopsis sp.) sobre o crescimento de copépodes hospedeiros, com ênfase sobre a família Paracalanidae, também foi avaliada. A comunidade de copépodes esteve representada por 66 espécies e caracterizada por valores relativamente altos de diversidade e equitabilidade em relação aos demais trabalhos na plataforma interna da região sudeste do país. Os copépodes foram o grupo dominante, sendo que estágios naupliares foram os mais comuns para a rede de 20 m, enquanto que copepoditos juvenis dominaram para a rede de 100 m. A densidade do zooplâncton foi altamente variável, sendo os maiores valores registrados para o inverno de 2011 para a malha de 20 m (33.160 ± 23.136 org. m-3) e os menores para o inverno de 2009 para a malha de 100 m (5.393 ± 2.264 org. m-3). As famílias dominantes de copépodes foram Oithonidae, Oncaeidae, Paracalanidae e Acartiidae, sendo a primeira dominante também em termos de biomassa. Os estágios juvenis dos copépodes representaram uma biomassa entre 1,06 a 3,47 mg C m-3 para o inverno de 2010 e verão de 2009 respectivamente. Taxas de crescimento foram obtidas para sete táxons de Calanoida (0,41 ± 0,21 d-1), cinco de Cyclopoida (0,27 ± 0,17 d-1) e dois de Harpacticoida (0,31 ± 0,16 d-1). Os valores de crescimento foram semelhantes entre as diferentes classes de tamanho e as estações do ano, mas foram substancialmente diferentes entre as ordens, sendo geralmente maiores para os Calanoida. A produção média estimada para os estágios imaturos dos táxons dominantes de copépodes foi igual a 0,45 mg C m-3, valor conservativo por não contemplar as espécies de menor densidade e frequência. O crescimento de copépodes da família Paracalanidae, principalmente Parvocalanus crassirostris, foi afetado pelo protista parasita Ellobiopsis sp., uma vez que as fêmeas adultas infectadas foram significativamente menores do que as normais. Cerca de 5% das fêmeas da espécie estiveram infectadas pelo parasita, que provavelmente afeta o crescimento somático e reprodutivo de P. crassirostris, com efeitos ainda desconhecidos em termos de biomassa e produção. As taxas calculadas de crescimento e a produção são semelhantes às de outros trabalhos em regiões tropicais. A abordagem experimental através de coortes artificiais forneceu os primeiros resultados sobre o crescimento de estágios juvenis de copépodes para uma região subtropical do Atlântico Sul Ocidental e demonstrou que a concentração da clorofila-a não foi um fator limitante. Este é um dos poucos trabalhos a disponibilizar dados de crescimento, biomassa e produção de tais estágios em ecossistemas marinhos tropicais e que padroniza o método de coortes artificiais para obtenção do crescimento / This thesis aimed to evaluate the temporal variability of the metazoan zooplankton density, growth, and production, with emphasis on copepod immature stages in the coastal area of Ubatuba (São Paulo, Brazil). The zooplankton community was studied during summer and winter from 2009 to 2011, by means of sampling with 20 and 100 m mesh-sized nets. Ecological indexes such as density, diversity and evenness were calculated. Growth rates for 14 taxa of copepod juvenile stages were determined by the artificial cohort method, in four size classes and different developmental stages (50-80, 80-100, 100-150 and 150-200 m). Biomass was estimated by the use of length-weight regressions followed by secondary production estimates. The incidence and possible effects of the alveolate parasite Ellobiopsis sp. on the growth of the copepod hosts was also investigated, with emphasis on the Paracalanidae family. The copepod assemblage was represented by 66 species and displayed relatively high diversity and evenness, in comparison to other studies in the inner shelf of the Brazilian southeastern coast. Copepod was the dominant group; nauplii in the 20 m net, and juvenile copepodids in the 100 m net. The zooplankton density was highly variable: the highest densities occurred during winter 2011 in the 20 m samples (33,160 ± 23,136 org. m-3) and the lowest for the winter 2009 in the 100 m samples (5,393 ± 2,264 org. m-3). The dominant copepod families were Oithonidae, Oncaeidae, Paracalanidae and Acartiidae, the former being the main taxa in terms of biomass as well. Juvenile copepod biomass varied between 1.06 and 3.47 mg C m-3 in the winter 2010 and summer 2009, respectively. Growth rates were recorded for seven Calanoida (0.41 ± 0.21 d-1), five Cyclopoida (0.27 ± 0.17 d-1) and two Harpacticoida (0.31 ± 0.16 d-1) taxa. Growth values were similar between the different size classes, seasons and years, but were substantially different between copepod orders (higher rates for the Calanoida). The mean production for all immature copepod stages was 0.45 mg C m-3, a conservative value, since rare species were not accounted for. The growth of the Paracalanidae copepod Parvocalanus crassirostris, was affected by the parasite protist Ellobiopsis sp., since infected adult females were significantly smaller than normal individuals. About 5% of adult females were infected by the parasite, which probably reduced somatic and reproductive growth of P. crassirostris, with potential consequences for biomass accumulation and, consequently, production. Growth and production rates were similar to those found in other studies carried out in tropical regions. The artificial cohort method has been applied here for the first time on the tropical and subtropical Southwest Atlantic, where clorophyl-a concentration was not considered a limiting factor for growth rates. This is one of the few studies providing data on growth, biomass and production for copepod juvenile stages in tropical marine ecosystems and standardizing the artificial cohort method to measure the growth rates

The objective of this thesis is to find patterns trends and assumptions for mortality vs. age prediction. Based on the analysis of trends in the already extinct cohorts, the most suitable models for estimating the future development of mortality among surviving cohorts are selected. This thesis compares real data extinct cohorts with balanced data Gompertz-Makehamovy function. The research and analysis is focused on the specifics of cohort mortality from the age of 90. The last part of this thesis illustrates comparison between real data of extinct cohorts with DeRaS model outputs. The selection of Kannisto and Thatcher as the optimal model is presented in the form of graphical outputs indicating the cohort life expectancy of men and women aged 90 years.

Diese Dissertation untersucht die Determinanten für Veränderungen in der öffentlichen Meinung zu Zugewanderten und Geflüchteten. Im Mittelpunkt steht die ungeplante Zuwanderung Geflüchteter in den Jahren 2015/16. Die Untersuchung konzentriert sich auf Deutschland, erforscht aber auch den breiteren europäischen Kontext. Erkenntnisse aus Mehrebenenanalysen, Längsschnittdaten und exklusiv erhobenen Geodaten tragen zur bisherigen Forschung bei und helfen, Schlussfolgerungen zu ziehen, wie Zuwanderung in Aufnahmegesellschaften besser gesteuert werden kann. Das erste empirische Kapitel zeigt, dass der Prozess der Generationenablösung in Deutschland nicht zu einem stetig toleranteren und offeneren Meinungsklima gegenüber Zugewanderten führt. Vielmehr ist ein Generationenverlauf zu beobachten, der nicht linear verläuft, sondern schwankend. Außerdem führen die gegenwärtigen Veränderungen der makroökonomischen Bedingungen zu keinen wesentlichen Veränderungen in den Einstellungen einer Generation. Ein Anstieg an Schutzsuchenden in Deutschland führt jedoch zu einer etwas restriktiveren Haltung zu Zugewanderten. Das zweite empirische Kapitel zeigt, dass die Zunahme der Zuwanderung aus verschiedenen Herkunftsländern unterschiedliche Reaktionen in den westlichen EU-Gesellschaften hervorruft. Während der Anstieg der Einwanderungsraten von EU-Bürgern keine signifikante Rolle bei der Veränderung der Einstellung der Einheimischen spielt, erweist sich die zunehmende Einwanderung aus Ländern des globalen Südens und von Geflüchteten als stabiler Prädiktor für eine ablehnendere Haltung der Kohorten. Das dritte empirische Kapitel liefert kaum Belege dafür, dass eine Geflüchtetenunterkunft in unmittelbarer Nähe mit den Einstellungen oder Verhaltensweisen der Einheimischen verbunden ist. Weder aktuelle Bedrohungswahrnehmungen noch erhöhte Kontaktmöglichkeiten durch die Anwesenheit einer Unterkunft in der Nähe haben einen nachhaltigen Effekt auf die Einstellungen der lokalen Bevölkerung. / This dissertation offers comprehensive study on the determinants for changes in public opinion toward immigrants and refugees. Centered around the unplanned immigration of large numbers of refugees in 2015/16, it focuses on Germany but additionally examines the broader context of Europe. Insights from multilevel analysis, longitudinal data and exclusively collected geo-data contribute to previous research and help to find conclusions on how to moderate and manage immigration in host societies. The first empirical chapter concludes that the process of generational replacement in Germany will not lead to a steadily more tolerant and open climate of opinion toward immigrants. Youngest cohorts in east Germany feel equally, and in west Germany increasingly threatened by immigration in comparison to their immediate predecessors. Moreover, current changes in macro-economic conditions do not lead to substantial changes in a generation’s attitudes. An increase in the number of people seeking protection in Germany, however, leads to somewhat more restrictive attitudes toward immigrants. The second empirical chapter shows that increases in immigration from different origin-backgrounds evoke dissimilar reactions within western EU host societies. While increases in immigration rates of EU citizens do not play a significant role in changing natives’ sentiments, rising immigration from countries in the Global South and refugees proves to be a stable predictor of cohorts’ attitudes to become more disapproving. The third empirical chapter finally provides little evidence that the presence of a refugee accommodation in close proximity is associated with locals’ attitudes or behavioral patterns toward refugees in Germany. Neither current threat-perceptions nor increased contact opportunities due to the presence of a refugee accommodation nearby have a lasting effect on locals’ attitudes. Sociotropic concerns at the societal level seem to outweigh actual affectedness at the local level.

Funding support for this doctoral thesis has been provided by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research-Public Health Agency of Canada, QICSS matching grant, and la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales-Université de Montréal. / Contexte : Les données probantes rapportées au cours des 20 dernières années indiquent un déclin important de la pratique d’activités physiques. Les chercheurs considèrent que la diminution de l’activité physique est un facteur clé de l’augmentation du surpoids et de l’obésité chez les enfants. Les transport actifs (TA), à savoir les modes de transport non motorisés tels la marche ou le vélo pour aller à l’école ou en revenir, pourraient constituer une opportunité de pratique d’activité physique. Objective : Cette thèse vise à identifier les déterminants individuels et écologiques du TA et d’en évaluer les retombées de santé possibles. Quatre études visant les objectifs suivants ont été réalisés: (1) Parmi un échantillon d’enfants et d’adolescents québécois, décrire la proportion d’enfants qui utilisent la marche, le transport en commun, le véhicule familial, l’autobus scolaire ou une combinaison de modes de déplacement pour se déplacer vers l’école. (2) Identifier les facteurs associés au TA pour se déplacer vers l’école parmi un échantillon d’enfants et d’adolescents québécois. (3) Parmi des échantillons de jeunes québécois et canadiens, identifier les déterminants individuels et écologiques du TA pour se déplacer vers l’école. (4) Examiner l’association entre le TA pour se déplacer vers l’école et les changements d’indice de masse corporelle (IMC) entre la maternelle et la 2e année du primaire. Méthodologie : Trois bases de données avec échantillonnage de type populationnel ont été utilisées pour répondre à ces objectifs de recherche, soit l’Enquête Sociale et de Santé auprès des Enfants et Adolescents québécois (ESSEA), l’Étude Longitudinale Nationale des Enfants et des Jeunes du Canada (ELNEJ) l’Étude Longitudinale sur le Développement des Enfants du Québec (ELDEQ). Des analyses statistiques pour données longitudinales ont été appliquées. Résultats : Les analyses ont mis en lumière quatre résultats importants. 1) Les données de l’ESSEA indiquent que les enfants de 9 ans vivant en milieu urbain et provenant de familles ayant de faibles revenus avaient une probabilité significativement plus élevée d’utiliser le TA pour se déplacer vers l’école. 2) Les données de l’ELNEJ indiquent que certains facteurs sociodémographiques qui changent à travers le temps sont associés à une probabilité plus élevée d’utiliser le TA pour se déplacer vers l’école dont : le fait de vivre dans un ménage ayant un revenu insuffisant, de vivre dans un ménage avec un seul parent, d’avoir un frère ou une sœur plus âgé/e dans le ménage et de vivre dans un milieu urbain. 3) L’exploitation des données de l’ELDEQ démontre que certaines variables associées à l’utilisation de TA pour se déplacer vers l’école sont le fait d’être un enfant provenant d’un ménage aux revenus insuffisants, de résider dans des quartiers pauvres et de vivre dans des quartiers perçus comme étant moyens, mauvais ou très mauvais pour élever des enfants. Ces résultats suggèrent que les enfants qui sont les moins favorisés sont les plus exposés à des environnements défavorables au TA et donc sont exposés à une forme d’injustice environnementale. 4) Enfin, l’IMC des enfants qui adoptent systématiquement la pratique du TA pour se déplacer vers l’école entre la maternelle à la 2e année du primaire suit une trajectoire plus saine que celle des enfants qui n’ont pas maintenu ce mode de TA. Conclusion: Bien que l’utilisation du TA pour se déplacer vers l'école puisse s'avérer favorable à la santé des enfants et des jeunes tel que démontré par l’évolution favorable de l’IMC des enfants adoptant cette pratique à plus long terme, la sécurité des routes menant vers l’école doit être améliorée pour permettre aux enfants de bénéficier de retombées positives de cette habitude de vie. Afin d’approfondir les connaissances dans ce domaine, il serait opportun de reproduire ces résultats avec des données issues de mesures de la dangerosité du quartier obtenues par des moyens autres que les questionnaires auto-rapportés de même que des données provenant d’études avec des devis quasi-expérimentaux ou expérimentaux qui ont recours à de grands échantillons représentatifs dans les zones urbaines où le TA pour se rendre et revenir de l’école est le plus probable. / Rationale: Evidence from the past 20 years points to important secular declines in physical activity. Researchers point to this decline as a factor in the increase in overweight and obesity among children. Active transportation (AT), defined as non-motorized modes of transportation such as walking or cycling to/from school, is one potential opportunity for physical activity. Previous studies have conceptual and methodological shortcomings thus limiting our understanding of the phenomenon. Objective: The overarching goals of the thesis are to identify individual and ecologic determinants of AT and to evaluate the possible health benefits of AT. Four investigations address the following specific objectives: (1) To describe the proportion of children who walked, used public transit, were driven to school in a school bus or vehicle, or used multiple transportation modes to and from school in a population-based sample of children and adolescents living in Quebec, Canada. (2) To identify correlates of AT to and from school among children and youth in a population-based sample of children and adolescents living in Quebec, Canada. (3) To identify time-varying and time-invariant individual and ecologic determinants of AT to/from school across the school years in population-based samples of Quebec and Canadian children. (4) To examine the relationship between AT to and from school with change in body mass index (BMI) from kindergarten to grade 2 in a population-based sample of Quebec children. Methods: Three population-based samples of youth were used to address these objectives, including the 1999 Quebec Child and Adolescent Health and Social Survey (QCAHS), the Canadian National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth (NLSCY), and the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD). Longitudinal analyses techniques were applied. Results: Analyses show four sets of findings. 1) According to the QCAHS, children who were 9 years old, living in urban areas, and were from low household income families were significantly more likely to use AT to/from school. 2) Findings from the NLSCY study indicated that the time-varying predictors: living in a household with insufficient income, living in a household with only one parent, having an older sibling in the household, and living in an urban setting were associated with greater likelihood of using AT to/from school. 3) With the use of QLSCD, patterns of AT to/from school across time, were identified including children who were from insufficient income households, and residing in economically deprived neighbourhoods. These results indicate that children who are the most underprivileged and exposed to environments not conducive for AT are those most likely to use AT to/from school suggesting the presence of environmental injustice. 4) Finally, the BMI of children who use AT to/from school consistently from Kindergarten to Grade 2 espoused a more healthy trajectory in comparison to that of children who did not use sustained AT to/from school. Conclusion: Although AT to/from school may prove to be favourable to the health of children, as manifested through healthful changes in BMI across time, routes to school need to be safe in order for all children to benefit from this behaviour. Replication studies that use measures of neighbourhood dangerosity that go beyond self-report, natural experiments, and inclusion of large representative samples from urban areas are needed.

L’obésité est devenue un véritable problème de santé publique. Elle est fréquemment associée à plusieurs anomalies cardiométaboliques telles que l’hypertension artérielle, l’insulinorésistance et les dyslipidémies qui font le lit du diabète de type 2 et des maladies cardiovasculaires. Cependant la fréquence de ces anomalies varie considérablement parmi les sujets obèses faisant de cette maladie chronique une situation clinique très hétérogène. A ce titre un nouveau concept a émergé, impliquant une population de patients sans facteurs de risque apparents, appelé « obèse métaboliquement sain » ou « metabolically healthy obese » (MHO). Des efforts sont en cours pour comprendre les mécanismes sous-jacents à ce phénotype et ses conséquences à long terme. L’objectif principal de cette thèse était d’étudier le lien entre le phénotype MHO et diverses pathologies chroniques connues pour être associées à l’obésité. Les données provenant des cohortes Whitehall II et GAZEL ont été utilisées pour examiner les associations entre le phénotype MHO et la mortalité, les maladies cardiovasculaires, le diabète de type 2 et la dépression. En comparaison aux sujets de poids normal métaboliquement sains, les individus MHO ont un risque accru de mortalité globale et cardiovasculaire, de diabète de type 2 et de maladies cardiovasculaires mais pas de dépression. Comparés aux sujets obèses avec anomalies métaboliques, les individus MHO ont un risque similaire de mortalité et de maladies cardiovasculaires, mais un moindre risque de diabète de type 2 et dépression. Nos résultats suggèrent que l’obésité à profil cardiométabolique normal n’est pas une condition bénigne. Une meilleure compréhension de ce phénotype contribuera à améliorer la décision thérapeutique et aidera peut-être à identifier des cibles thérapeutiques nouvelles. / Obesity has become a major public health concern. It is frequently associated with several cardiometabolic abnormalities such as hypertension, insulin resistance and dyslipidemia leading to type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. However, the frequency of these abnormalities varies widely among obese subjects, making this chronic condition a very heterogeneous clinical situation. As such a new concept has emerged, involving a population of patients without metabolic risk, called "metabolically healthy obese" (MHO). Intense interest surrounds the MHO phenotype with on-going efforts to understand the mechanisms underlying this phenotype and its long-term consequences. The main objective of this thesis was to study the relationship between the MHO phenotype and various chronic diseases known to be associated with obesity. Data from the Whitehall II and GAZEL cohorts were used to examine associations between this phenotype and mortality, cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and depression. Compared to metabolically healthy normal weight subjects, MHO individuals have an increased risk of overall and cardiovascular mortality, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, but not depression. Compared to metabolically unhealthy obese subjects, MHO individuals have a similar risk of mortality and cardiovascular disease, but a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, and depression. Our results suggest that obesity with normal cardiometabolic profile is not a benign condition. A better understanding of this phenotype will enhance therapeutic decision making and possibly help to identify new therapeutic targets.

Contexte : Les données probantes rapportées au cours des 20 dernières années indiquent un déclin important de la pratique d’activités physiques. Les chercheurs considèrent que la diminution de l’activité physique est un facteur clé de l’augmentation du surpoids et de l’obésité chez les enfants. Les transport actifs (TA), à savoir les modes de transport non motorisés tels la marche ou le vélo pour aller à l’école ou en revenir, pourraient constituer une opportunité de pratique d’activité physique. Objective : Cette thèse vise à identifier les déterminants individuels et écologiques du TA et d’en évaluer les retombées de santé possibles. Quatre études visant les objectifs suivants ont été réalisés: (1) Parmi un échantillon d’enfants et d’adolescents québécois, décrire la proportion d’enfants qui utilisent la marche, le transport en commun, le véhicule familial, l’autobus scolaire ou une combinaison de modes de déplacement pour se déplacer vers l’école. (2) Identifier les facteurs associés au TA pour se déplacer vers l’école parmi un échantillon d’enfants et d’adolescents québécois. (3) Parmi des échantillons de jeunes québécois et canadiens, identifier les déterminants individuels et écologiques du TA pour se déplacer vers l’école. (4) Examiner l’association entre le TA pour se déplacer vers l’école et les changements d’indice de masse corporelle (IMC) entre la maternelle et la 2e année du primaire. Méthodologie : Trois bases de données avec échantillonnage de type populationnel ont été utilisées pour répondre à ces objectifs de recherche, soit l’Enquête Sociale et de Santé auprès des Enfants et Adolescents québécois (ESSEA), l’Étude Longitudinale Nationale des Enfants et des Jeunes du Canada (ELNEJ) l’Étude Longitudinale sur le Développement des Enfants du Québec (ELDEQ). Des analyses statistiques pour données longitudinales ont été appliquées. Résultats : Les analyses ont mis en lumière quatre résultats importants. 1) Les données de l’ESSEA indiquent que les enfants de 9 ans vivant en milieu urbain et provenant de familles ayant de faibles revenus avaient une probabilité significativement plus élevée d’utiliser le TA pour se déplacer vers l’école. 2) Les données de l’ELNEJ indiquent que certains facteurs sociodémographiques qui changent à travers le temps sont associés à une probabilité plus élevée d’utiliser le TA pour se déplacer vers l’école dont : le fait de vivre dans un ménage ayant un revenu insuffisant, de vivre dans un ménage avec un seul parent, d’avoir un frère ou une sœur plus âgé/e dans le ménage et de vivre dans un milieu urbain. 3) L’exploitation des données de l’ELDEQ démontre que certaines variables associées à l’utilisation de TA pour se déplacer vers l’école sont le fait d’être un enfant provenant d’un ménage aux revenus insuffisants, de résider dans des quartiers pauvres et de vivre dans des quartiers perçus comme étant moyens, mauvais ou très mauvais pour élever des enfants. Ces résultats suggèrent que les enfants qui sont les moins favorisés sont les plus exposés à des environnements défavorables au TA et donc sont exposés à une forme d’injustice environnementale. 4) Enfin, l’IMC des enfants qui adoptent systématiquement la pratique du TA pour se déplacer vers l’école entre la maternelle à la 2e année du primaire suit une trajectoire plus saine que celle des enfants qui n’ont pas maintenu ce mode de TA. Conclusion: Bien que l’utilisation du TA pour se déplacer vers l'école puisse s'avérer favorable à la santé des enfants et des jeunes tel que démontré par l’évolution favorable de l’IMC des enfants adoptant cette pratique à plus long terme, la sécurité des routes menant vers l’école doit être améliorée pour permettre aux enfants de bénéficier de retombées positives de cette habitude de vie. Afin d’approfondir les connaissances dans ce domaine, il serait opportun de reproduire ces résultats avec des données issues de mesures de la dangerosité du quartier obtenues par des moyens autres que les questionnaires auto-rapportés de même que des données provenant d’études avec des devis quasi-expérimentaux ou expérimentaux qui ont recours à de grands échantillons représentatifs dans les zones urbaines où le TA pour se rendre et revenir de l’école est le plus probable. / Rationale: Evidence from the past 20 years points to important secular declines in physical activity. Researchers point to this decline as a factor in the increase in overweight and obesity among children. Active transportation (AT), defined as non-motorized modes of transportation such as walking or cycling to/from school, is one potential opportunity for physical activity. Previous studies have conceptual and methodological shortcomings thus limiting our understanding of the phenomenon. Objective: The overarching goals of the thesis are to identify individual and ecologic determinants of AT and to evaluate the possible health benefits of AT. Four investigations address the following specific objectives: (1) To describe the proportion of children who walked, used public transit, were driven to school in a school bus or vehicle, or used multiple transportation modes to and from school in a population-based sample of children and adolescents living in Quebec, Canada. (2) To identify correlates of AT to and from school among children and youth in a population-based sample of children and adolescents living in Quebec, Canada. (3) To identify time-varying and time-invariant individual and ecologic determinants of AT to/from school across the school years in population-based samples of Quebec and Canadian children. (4) To examine the relationship between AT to and from school with change in body mass index (BMI) from kindergarten to grade 2 in a population-based sample of Quebec children. Methods: Three population-based samples of youth were used to address these objectives, including the 1999 Quebec Child and Adolescent Health and Social Survey (QCAHS), the Canadian National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth (NLSCY), and the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD). Longitudinal analyses techniques were applied. Results: Analyses show four sets of findings. 1) According to the QCAHS, children who were 9 years old, living in urban areas, and were from low household income families were significantly more likely to use AT to/from school. 2) Findings from the NLSCY study indicated that the time-varying predictors: living in a household with insufficient income, living in a household with only one parent, having an older sibling in the household, and living in an urban setting were associated with greater likelihood of using AT to/from school. 3) With the use of QLSCD, patterns of AT to/from school across time, were identified including children who were from insufficient income households, and residing in economically deprived neighbourhoods. These results indicate that children who are the most underprivileged and exposed to environments not conducive for AT are those most likely to use AT to/from school suggesting the presence of environmental injustice. 4) Finally, the BMI of children who use AT to/from school consistently from Kindergarten to Grade 2 espoused a more healthy trajectory in comparison to that of children who did not use sustained AT to/from school. Conclusion: Although AT to/from school may prove to be favourable to the health of children, as manifested through healthful changes in BMI across time, routes to school need to be safe in order for all children to benefit from this behaviour. Replication studies that use measures of neighbourhood dangerosity that go beyond self-report, natural experiments, and inclusion of large representative samples from urban areas are needed. / Funding support for this doctoral thesis has been provided by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research-Public Health Agency of Canada, QICSS matching grant, and la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales-Université de Montréal.