Résumé : À partir de 2002, grâce à l’introduction du concept de la Qualité par la Conception (en anglais Quality by Design : QbD) par l’agence américaine des produits alimentaires et médicamenteux, l’industrie pharmaceutique a intensifié les efforts et les investissements pour permettre une libération en temps réel des lots commerciaux. Le QbD propose que la qualité soit construite dès la conception initiale du médicament plutôt que d'être évaluée à la fin de sa fabrication. Ainsi, avec l’initiative QbD, les tests de contrôle de la qualité des médicaments, réalisés après la fabrication des comprimés, peuvent être éliminés si les paramètres qui les influencent sont contrôlés. En effet, ces tests de contrôle qualité dits traditionnels requièrent en général plusieurs heures pour leurs préparations et leurs réalisations. Tel est le cas du test de dissolution. Ce test est très consommateur de ressources matérielles et humaines. La réalisation de stratégies de contrôle pour les tests de dissolution basée sur une approche QbD pourrait être bénéfique pour l'industrie pharmaceutique. À travers ce travail, nous avons pu : • proposer différentes stratégies novatrices de contrôle du test de dissolution de comprimés pharmaceutiques sur la base des principes du QbD, • apporter un nouvel éclairage sur la compréhension des phénomènes impliqués dans la dissolution de comprimés pharmaceutiques. Les résultats de ce projet de recherche ont permis 1) la mise en évidence des paramètres critiques influençant le test de dissolution, 2) l’élaboration et l’évaluation de modèles statistiques pour les combinaisons de variation de paramètres selon un plan d’expérience préalablement conçu, 3) la corrélation du test de dissolution à des paramètres critiques de procédés de fabrication et d’attributs de matériaux grâce aux technologies d’analyse de procédés. // Abstract : With the introduction in 2002 of the concept of Quality by Design (QbD) by the Food and Drug Administration, the pharmaceutical industry intensified efforts and investments to reach real time release of commercial batches, reducing time between manufacturing and availability to the patient. QbD proposes that quality should be built in the initial design of a product rather than being assessed at the end of the tablet manufacturing. Thus, with the QbD initiative, quality control tests of tablets like dissolution testing performed after manufacturing could be removed if the parameters impacting them are controlled. Indeed, quality control tests such as traditional dissolution tests generally require several hours for their preparation and their realizations. Dissolution tests are time consuming, require large amounts of material and human resources. The elimination of these tests through a QbD approach could be beneficial for the pharmaceutical industry. Thanks to this work, it was possible to :  propose different innovative strategies to control the dissolution test of pharmaceutical tablets based on the principles of Quality by Design,  have a better understanding of this quality control test. The main results relies on 1) the identification of critical parameters influencing the dissolution test, 2) the development and evaluation of statistical models for the combination of variation of parameters according to an experimental design, 3) the correlation of dissolution test to critical manufacturing process parameters and attributes of materials through process analysis technology.

L’union juridique formée par deux personnes qui vivent en couple se fonde sur l’existence d’une communauté de vie, dont le droit français consacre trois modes d’organisation : le mariage, le pacte civil de solidarité et le concubinage. L’intensité de cette communauté varie selon le mode de conjugalité et chacun constitue, par conséquent, une inégale source de solidarité. Ce soutien, à la fois matériel et moral, ne résiste pas à la dissolution de l’union qui constitue dès lors, dans certains cas, la source d’un préjudice ou d’un état de besoin.Dans le but de les compenser, le droit met en œuvre une indemnisation, lors de la rupture. Ce transfert de valeurs prend la forme de dommages-intérêts, d’une prestation compensatoire et d’une indemnité in rem verso. Toutefois, après avoir assisté au recul de la faute, ainsi qu’à l’avènement d’une responsabilité objective, c’est tout le système de la compensation-indemnisation qui décline et ne semble plus adapté à l’union telle qu’on la conçoit, libéralisée dans sa dissolution et émancipatrice des individus. Ce déclin incite à rechercher l’existence d’une autre méthode de compensation.L’extinction du lien conjugal dissout la communauté de vie, sans que les effets déjà produits ne soient remis en cause. Or, tout au long de la vie commune, l’union provoque la mutualisation d’un certain nombre de richesses, qu’il convient de partager. Cette redistribution, réalisée par l’intermédiaire d’une communauté, d’une indivision ou d’une société a pour effet de compenser l’éventuelle disparité patrimoniale. Lorsque cette compensation est insuffisante ou ne permet pas à l’un des conjoints de subvenir à ses besoins, c’est une redistribution minimale que le droit organise, en tirant profit des biens présents dans le patrimoine de l’un, pour attribuer des droits utiles à l’autre, notamment sur l’immeuble affecté au logement. Ces deux formes de distribution constituent les manifestations d’un nouveau modèle : la compensation-distribution. / The legal union formed by two persons living as a couple is based on the existence of a joint living for which French Law sanctions three modes of organization: marriage, civil partnership and cohabitation. The intensity of this community depends on the nature of conjugality. As a consequence, each of the presented modes of organization consists of an uneven source of solidarity. Solidarity is both material and moral, and does not survive the dissolution of the union, which therefore denotes, in some cases, a source of damage or a state of necessity. In order to compensate this situation, French Law provides for compensation when couples break up. This transfer of value takes the form of damages, of a spousal support or of an in rem verso compensation. However, as a consequence of the decline of fault and the accession of an objective liability, the whole compensation system is deteriorating and no more seems suitable for the union the way it is understood, i.e. liberal in its break up and liberated from individuals. This decline encourages us to look for the existence of other compensation methods. The termination of the marital bond dissolves the joint living without prejudice to the effects already produced. Yet, throughout the shared life, the union causes a certain mutual wealth that needs to be divided. This redistribution, made trough a community, a joint ownership or a company, ends up compensating the possible disparity in property. When the compensation is insufficient or cannot permit one of the spouses to support themselves, the Law organizes a minimal redistribution, taking into account the present assets of a spouse in order to grant a useful right to the other, especially concerning accommodation. Those two forms of distribution represent the expression of a new model: the distributive compensation.

Le secteur aéronautique connaît un important essor depuis les années 1960, avec pour conséquence l’augmentation majeure des températures de fonctionnement des turbines. L’utilisation de capteurs, au plus proche de la chambre de combustion, est nécessaire pour maîtriser les performances des turboréacteurs. Cela justifie le besoin industriel de développer des assemblages céramique-métal résistants à un environnement sévère (>1100°C sous air, vibrations, etc.)L’alumine est sélectionnée en raison de son caractère isolant à haute température. La principale difficulté réside dans le choix du substrat métallique, qui doit être à la fois : réfractaire, résistant à l’oxydation, pour un coût abordable. Le potentiel d’un carbure ternaire (de type phase MAX) est évalué en tant que substrat métallique. La composition des brasures est ajustée pour chaque système afin de garantir : une tenue en température, une excellente ductilité et une compatibilité métallurgique vis-à-vis du substrat métallique.Des brasures ternaires Au-Pd-Pt sont formulées et élaborées. Les contours de solidus et de liquidus de ce ternaire sont déterminés expérimentalement. Les mécanismes de diffusion, de dissolution ou encore de pénétration inter-granulaire, à l’interface métal/brasure, sont décrits afin d’apporter des améliorations aux systèmes développés. Au cours du brasage, la diffusion de l’aluminium des substrats alumino-formeurs vers la brasure est prédominante, malgré la mise en place d’une barrière de diffusion. Le recours à des substrats métalliques nobles s’avère incontournable.Les paramètres géométriques et chimiques de l’assemblage sont établis pour chaque nouveau système étudié sur la base des processus physico-chimiques survenant au cours du brasage et du vieillissement sous air. Les meilleurs assemblages développés présentent une excellente herméticité après brasage. Les essais de vieillissement en cyclage thermique, dans des conditions sévères, sollicitent fortement la liaison céramique-brasure jusqu’à la rupture interfaciale. Deux voies d’améliorations sont proposées pour assurer la durabilité de la liaison céramique-brasure au cours du cyclage thermique. / Aerospace technology developments are blooming. Since the 1960’s the Turbine Entry Temperature for aero-engines gas turbines keeps rising to improve their efficiency. Sensors working close to the combustion chamber are required in order to master the turbine performances. This results in an industrial urge to develop ceramic-to-metal assemblies able to endure severe engine environment (>1100°C under air, vibrations, etc.)The choice of an alumina as the ceramic part ensures a good insulation at high temperature. The main issue remains the metallic material which must be refractory, resistant to oxidation and affordable. The application of a ternary carbide (phase MAX) is tested. The braze alloy composition is adjusted to each system so as to provide a good ductility, thermal stability and a metallurgical matching as regards dissolution and brittle compounds formation.Braze alloys based on the Au-Pd-Pt system are investigated. The aforesaid liquidus and solidus surfaces are defined from experimental measures. Diffusion, dissolution and inter-granular penetration at the metal/braze alloy interface are described to suggest improvements. Aluminum diffusion from alumina-forming materials towards the braze alloy is the dominant phenomenon during brazing, despite the use of a diffusion barrier. The use of noble materials for the metallic substrate is mandatory.Geometrical and chemical assembly parameters are defined for selected brazed system based on the physicochemical interactions occurring during brazing and aging under air. The best brazed assemblies present an excellent hermeticity after brazing. Thermal cycling aging in severe conditions is detrimental to ceramic-braze alloy bonding, leading to interfacial cracks. Two promising strategies are suggested to ensure a reliable ceramic-to-braze alloy bonding during thermal cycling.

La présente thèse dit ce qu’est le Président de la République Portugaise, elle le nomme. Pour ce faire, elle montre comment la figure présidentielle s’est construite depuis 1986, depuis que la démocratie portugaise n’est plus « à l’ombre des épées ». A cette fin, la thèse examine d’abord la légitimité particulière du Chef de l’Etat lusitain, directe mais apartisane. Celle-ci doit être comprise à la lumière de l’histoire politique et constitutionnelle du Portugal qui a connu le parlementarisme éclaté et la dictature personnelle. Elle examine ensuite la position du Président de la République au sein de l’architecture constitutionnelle portugaise au moyen de ses pouvoirs et de ses relations avec le Gouvernement en tant que fonction et en tant qu’organe. Si la présidence portugaise ne détermine pas la politique générale du pays, les différents titulaires de la charge présidentielle ont su participer à la formation de la volonté politique de l’Etat grâce au développement d’une magistrature qui leur est propre. Leurs prises de parole et leurs actions de terrain ont permis au Président de la République d’avoir une réalité par-delà le dispositif constitutionnel. De ces différents éléments, la thèse infère enfin la qualification du régime politique portugais et se clôt sur la dénomination de la figure présidentielle portugaise, telle qu’elle a été et s’est construite. / This doctoral dissertation tells what the President of the Portuguese Republic is and gives it a name. To this end, it shows how the Portuguese presidential figure has built itself since 1986, since the Portuguese democracy has no more been under the “shadow of swords”. To reach this goal, the dissertation begins by focusing on the president’s legitimacy, direct but unpartisan. Its particular legitimacy cannot be understood without referring to Portugal’s political and constitutional history which went through fragmented parliamentarism and personal dictatorship. Then it considers the presidential position within the Portuguese constitutional framework using its powers and looking into its relations with the Government as a function and as an organ. If the Portuguese presidency does not fix the country general policy, it does take part in the State’s will formation due to the emergence of a proper magistracy. Speech and field acts have given a reality to the President beyond the constitutional purview. Finally, this doctoral dissertation infers the qualification of the Portuguese political regime and ends by naming the Portuguese presidential figure, as it has been built and as it has been built itself.

No presente trabalho, foram desenvolvidos e avaliados comprimidos de liberação convencional de hidroclorotiazida 50mg: 6 por granulação úmida e 8 por compressão direta. Na etapa de pré-formulação, foram realizados estudos termoanalíticos (TG/DTG e DSC) para seleção de excipientes compatíveis com o fármaco e estudos micromeríticos para avaliação das propriedades de fluxo e compressibilidade das matérias-primas empregadas, dos granulados e das misturas para compressão direta obtidos. As formulações foram avaliadas quanto ao diâmetro, espessura, dureza, friabilidade, desintegração, dissolução, teor, uniformidade de conteúdo, perfil e eficiência de dissolução, empregando-se métodos analíticos devidamente validados. As melhores formulações obtidas por granulação úmida (formulação B1) e compressão direta (formulação J) foram comparadas com o produto referência para comprimidos de hidroclorotiazida, quanto à eficiência de dissolução e demonstraram ser estatisticamente semelhantes entre si e superiores ao produto referência, nas condições empregadas. / In this work, conventional liberation of hydrochlorothiazide 50 mg: 6 for wet granulation and 8 for direct compression - were developed and valuated. In the pre-formulation stage, thermoanalytical studies (TG/DTC and DSC) were realized to select compatible excipients with the drug; as well as micromeritical studies were realized to value the flow and compressibility properties of the used raw materials, granulates and obtained mixtures for direct compression. The prescriptions were valuated in relation to diameter, thickness, hardness, friability, disintegration, dissolution, assay, uniformity of contents, profile and efficiency of dissolution, using analytical methods property validated. The best formulations obtained by wet granulation (B1 formulation) and direct compression (J formulation) were compared with the reference product to tablet of hydrochlorothiazide, concerning to the efficiency of dissolution and they demonstrated to be statistically similar to each other and to be superior to the reference product, in the used conditions.

A Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS) é uma doença de amplo espectro de manifestações, sendo razão de preocupação para qualquer autoridade sanitária. A terapêutica da AIDS é complexa sendo utilizados vários medicamentos, diversas vezes ao dia. Deste modo, objetivou-se o desenvolvimento de formas farmacêuticas sólidas como comprimidos tamponados mastigáveis (CTM), comprimidos com revestimento gastro-resistentes (CRGR) e pellets (PEL) para a veiculação de didanosina (ddl). Seis especialidades farmacêuticas na forma de CTM foram estudadas quanto ao perfil de dissolução, pH do meio e capacidade neutralizante ácida (CNA). Formulações teste de CTM foram propostas visando obter CNAs e perfis de dissolução adequados. Também foram testadas formulações de comprimidos e de pellets para posterior revestimento com filme gastro-resistente derivado do ácido metacrílico. Os ensaios de dissolução das amostras de CTM revelaram diferenças nas características de liberação do fármaco. Também foram observadas diferenças relacionadas a CNA. As formulações de CTM propostas apresentaram, na maioria dos casos, adequados perfis de dissolução e CNA. As formulações CRGR que receberam revestimento gastro-resistente apresentaram perfis de dissolução de ddl adequados, entretanto os comprimidos testados intumesceram em meio ácido, indicando descontinuidade do filme polimérico sobre os comprimidos. Testes para a produção de pellets veiculando ddl mostraram-se adequados quanto à morfologia e dissolução do fármaco, o mesmo sendo observado após o revestimento com filme gastro-resistente. / The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a disease that manifests itself in a myriad of ways. Because of this, the condition has been subject of concern to all sanitary authorities. The treatment of AIDS is complex and many types of medicine are used, many times a day. The objective of the present study was to develop solid pharmaceutical dosage forms such as buffered chewable tablets (CTM), gastro-resistant coating tablets (CRGR) and pellets (PEL) for the loading of didanosine (ddl). Six pharmaceutical specialties in the form of CTM were studied so as to identify the profile of the dissolution, the pH of the environment, and the neutralizing acid capacity (CNA). The use of CTM tests formulations was proposed with the objective of obtaining adequate CNA and dissolution profiles. Different compositions of tablets and pellets were tested for a later addition of gastro-resistant film derived from the methacrylic acid. The experiments on the dissolution of the sample of CTM showed differences in the characteristic of the release of the substance. Differences related to the CNA were also observed. The formulations of the CTM proposed showed to have, in the most number of the cases, both adequate dissolution behavior and CNA. The formulations of the CRGR that had received the gastro-resistant coating showed adequate profile of ddl dissolution; the tested tablets, however, swelled in the acid environment, therefore indicating a lack of continuity of the polymeric film over the tablets. The tests for the production of pellets showed adequate results as to its morphology and dissolution of ddl. The same was observed after coating the pellets with gastro-resistant film.

A Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS) é uma doença de amplo espectro de manifestações, sendo razão de preocupação para qualquer autoridade sanitária. A terapêutica da AIDS é complexa sendo utilizados vários medicamentos, diversas vezes ao dia. Deste modo, objetivou-se o desenvolvimento de formas farmacêuticas sólidas como comprimidos tamponados mastigáveis (CTM), comprimidos com revestimento gastro-resistentes (CRGR) e pellets (PEL) para a veiculação de didanosina (ddl). Seis especialidades farmacêuticas na forma de CTM foram estudadas quanto ao perfil de dissolução, pH do meio e capacidade neutralizante ácida (CNA). Formulações teste de CTM foram propostas visando obter CNAs e perfis de dissolução adequados. Também foram testadas formulações de comprimidos e de pellets para posterior revestimento com filme gastro-resistente derivado do ácido metacrílico. Os ensaios de dissolução das amostras de CTM revelaram diferenças nas características de liberação do fármaco. Também foram observadas diferenças relacionadas a CNA. As formulações de CTM propostas apresentaram, na maioria dos casos, adequados perfis de dissolução e CNA. As formulações CRGR que receberam revestimento gastro-resistente apresentaram perfis de dissolução de ddl adequados, entretanto os comprimidos testados intumesceram em meio ácido, indicando descontinuidade do filme polimérico sobre os comprimidos. Testes para a produção de pellets veiculando ddl mostraram-se adequados quanto à morfologia e dissolução do fármaco, o mesmo sendo observado após o revestimento com filme gastro-resistente. / The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a disease that manifests itself in a myriad of ways. Because of this, the condition has been subject of concern to all sanitary authorities. The treatment of AIDS is complex and many types of medicine are used, many times a day. The objective of the present study was to develop solid pharmaceutical dosage forms such as buffered chewable tablets (CTM), gastro-resistant coating tablets (CRGR) and pellets (PEL) for the loading of didanosine (ddl). Six pharmaceutical specialties in the form of CTM were studied so as to identify the profile of the dissolution, the pH of the environment, and the neutralizing acid capacity (CNA). The use of CTM tests formulations was proposed with the objective of obtaining adequate CNA and dissolution profiles. Different compositions of tablets and pellets were tested for a later addition of gastro-resistant film derived from the methacrylic acid. The experiments on the dissolution of the sample of CTM showed differences in the characteristic of the release of the substance. Differences related to the CNA were also observed. The formulations of the CTM proposed showed to have, in the most number of the cases, both adequate dissolution behavior and CNA. The formulations of the CRGR that had received the gastro-resistant coating showed adequate profile of ddl dissolution; the tested tablets, however, swelled in the acid environment, therefore indicating a lack of continuity of the polymeric film over the tablets. The tests for the production of pellets showed adequate results as to its morphology and dissolution of ddl. The same was observed after coating the pellets with gastro-resistant film.

No presente trabalho, foram desenvolvidos e avaliados comprimidos de liberação convencional de hidroclorotiazida 50mg: 6 por granulação úmida e 8 por compressão direta. Na etapa de pré-formulação, foram realizados estudos termoanalíticos (TG/DTG e DSC) para seleção de excipientes compatíveis com o fármaco e estudos micromeríticos para avaliação das propriedades de fluxo e compressibilidade das matérias-primas empregadas, dos granulados e das misturas para compressão direta obtidos. As formulações foram avaliadas quanto ao diâmetro, espessura, dureza, friabilidade, desintegração, dissolução, teor, uniformidade de conteúdo, perfil e eficiência de dissolução, empregando-se métodos analíticos devidamente validados. As melhores formulações obtidas por granulação úmida (formulação B1) e compressão direta (formulação J) foram comparadas com o produto referência para comprimidos de hidroclorotiazida, quanto à eficiência de dissolução e demonstraram ser estatisticamente semelhantes entre si e superiores ao produto referência, nas condições empregadas. / In this work, conventional liberation of hydrochlorothiazide 50 mg: 6 for wet granulation and 8 for direct compression - were developed and valuated. In the pre-formulation stage, thermoanalytical studies (TG/DTC and DSC) were realized to select compatible excipients with the drug; as well as micromeritical studies were realized to value the flow and compressibility properties of the used raw materials, granulates and obtained mixtures for direct compression. The prescriptions were valuated in relation to diameter, thickness, hardness, friability, disintegration, dissolution, assay, uniformity of contents, profile and efficiency of dissolution, using analytical methods property validated. The best formulations obtained by wet granulation (B1 formulation) and direct compression (J formulation) were compared with the reference product to tablet of hydrochlorothiazide, concerning to the efficiency of dissolution and they demonstrated to be statistically similar to each other and to be superior to the reference product, in the used conditions.

Cette thèse porte sur la production et l’étude de mousses de polymères micro ou nanoporeux à partir de mélanges nanostructurés à base de PMMA (poly(méthyl méthacrylate)) par dissolution et moussage avec CO2. D’autre part, plusieurs techniques expérimentales ont été améliorées ou adaptées afin de fournir de précieuses informations sur les systèmes étudiés. La nanostructuration de mélanges solides denses à base de PMMA est induite par l’addition d’un copolymère à blocs (MAM, poly(méthyl méthacrylate)-co-poly(butylacrylate)-co-poly(méthyl méthacrylate)). Les structures cellulaires des mousses produites à partir de ces mélanges ont été caractérisées et expliquées ; on a démontré que la nanostructuration agit comme un modèle (un gabarit) pour la structure cellulaire, permettant l’obtention d’un large éventail de structures cellulaires et en particulier des mousses nanocellulaires. De plus il est démontré que les paramètres du procédé, tels que la pression et la température, permettent la différenciation entre les deux voies de moussage utilisées ;ceux-ci ont une influence significative sur les caractéristiques finales des mousses de PMMA seul, mais peu sur celles des mélanges PMMA/MAM. Les mousses dans ces mélanges présentent un mécanisme de nucléation hétérogène contrôlée par la nanostructuration, ce qui permet de limiter l’influence des paramètres de traitement thermique dans la nucléation de la cellule. En outre, certains mélanges de PMMA/MAM présentent également une remarquable stabilité de leur morphologie au cours de la croissance cellulaire, ce qui évite l’effondrement cellulaire et la coalescence.Enfin, on a étudié l’influence de la transition entre les structures micro-cellulaires et les structures nano-cellulaires sur les propriétés : une nette diminution de la conductivité thermique en raison de l’effet de Knudsen que nous avons mis en évidence, une augmentation notable de la température de transition vitreuse en raison de l’isolement des chaînes de polymères dans les parois (les murs) de la cellule ; mais n’avons pas noté d’influence importante de cette transition sur le module de Young. / This dissertation focuses on the production and study of nanocellular foams from PMMA based(poly(methyl methacrylate) materials by CO2 gas dissolution foaming.Due to the novelty of this research field several experimental techniques have been improved or adapted in order to provide valuable information from the systems understudy. Nanostructuration of PMMA-based blends induced by the addition of a block copolymer (MAM, poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-poly(butyl acrylate)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate)) and the cellular structure of the foams produced from these blends have been characterized and related; obtaining that the nanostructuration acts as a pattern for the cellular structure, allowing obtaining a wide range of cellular structures and in particular nanocellular foams. It is demonstrated that processing parameters, such as pressure and temperature, allow differentiating between two foaming routes ; and present a significant influence on the foaming process and final characteristics of neat PMMA foams, but not on PMMA/MAM blends. PMMA/MAM blends present a heterogeneous nucleation mechanism controlled by the nanostructuration that avoid the influence of the processing parameters in the cell nucleation. In addition, some PMMA/MAM blends also present a high stability during the cell growth, avoiding the cellular collapse and coalescence. Finally, it has been studied the influence on the foams properties of the transition between the microcellular and the nanocellular ranges; obtaining that there is a clear influence on the thermal conductivity, which decreases in nanocellular foams due to the Knudsen effect,and the glass transition temperature, which increases in nanocellular foams due to the confinement of the polymer chains in the cell walls, but not on the Young’s modulus. / Esta tesis se centra en la producción y estudio de de espumas poliméricas nanocelulares producidas a partir de materiales basados en PMMA (poli(metil metacrilato)), mediante la técnica de espumado por disolución de gas usando CO2. Debido a la novedad de este campo de investigación ha sido necesario mejorar o adaptar varias técnicas experimentales para obtener la información necesaria de los sistemas bajo estudio. Se han caracterizado y relacionado la nanoestructuración de mezclas basadas en PMMA, inducida por la adición de un copolímero de bloque (MAM, poli(metil metacrilato)-copoli(butil acrilato)-co-poli(metil metacrilato)), y la estructura celular de las espumas producidas a partir de esas mezclas; obteniéndose que la nanoestructuración actúa como patrón para la estructura celular, permitiendo obtener una amplia variedad de estructuras celulares y en particular de estructuras nanocelulares.Se ha demostrado que los parámetros de procesado, como la presión y temperatura,permiten diferenciar entre dos rutas de espumado y presentan una influencia significativa en las características finales de las espumas de PMMA puro, pero no en las mezclas de PMMA/MAM. Estas mezclas presentan un mecanismo de nucleación heterogénea controlado por la nanoestructuración, que evita que los parámetros de procesado influyanen el proceso de nucleación de las celdas. Además, algunas mezclas de PMMA/MAM también presentan una alta estabilidad durante el crecimiento de las celdas, evitando el colapso de la estructura celular y la coalescencia.Finalmente, se ha estudiado la influencia en las propiedades de las espumas de la transición entre el rango microcelular y el rango nanocelular; obteniéndose que hay una clara influencia sobre la conductividad térmica, que decrece en las espumas nanocelulares debido al efecto Knudsen, y sobre la temperatura de transición vítrea, que se incrementa debido al confinamiento de las cadenas poliméricas en las paredes de las celdas, pero no sobre el módulo de Young.

Les câbles métalliques utilisés pour le renforcement des pneumatiques sont obtenus par assemblage de fils fins produits par tréfilage d’un fil d’acier perlitique à teneur en carbone proche de la composition eutectoïde. La mise en forme par tréfilage a pour but, d’une part de donner au fil son diamètre final et, d’autre part de l’écrouir et lui conférer une très haute résistance mécanique (3500 MPa environ pour des fils de diamètre de 200 µm environ). L’objectif actuel est de porter cette résistance à un niveau proche de 5000 MPa afin d’abaisser la quantité d’acier de renfort et de diminuer ainsi le poids et le coût des pneumatiques. Toutefois l’obtention de fils à ultra-haute résistance (5000 MPa) se voit confronter à deux obstacles majeurs. En effet, le renforcement de l’acier au cours de l’étape de tréfilage engendre des évolutions microstructurales et mécaniques très importantes qui provoquent l’apparition d’une fragilisation des fils. Ce phénomène est considéré comme le seuil de tréfilabilité au-delà duquel le fil ne peut plus être renforcé par écrouissage. Au-delà de cette fragilisation prématurée du fil, un phénomène de vieillissement post-tréfilage provoque lui aussi une évolution de la microstructure et une perte de la ductilité au cours du temps à température ambiante ou encore suite à des traitements thermiques basse température (< 200°C). Cette instabilité des fils dans le temps peut être fortement pénalisante pour leur mise en assemblage en vue d’obtenir les renforts métalliques puisqu’elle est responsable de nombreuses ruptures des fils. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse a consisté alors à contribuer à la définition des évolutions microstructurales, à l’origine des variations des propriétés mécaniques qui apparaissent au cours de l’écrouissage et du vieillissement post-tréfilage. Pour cela, une approche expérimentale originale reposant sur l’utilisation combinée de plusieurs techniques de caractérisation globales et indirectes (pouvoir thermoélectrique, résistivité électrique, spectroscopie mécanique, calorimétrie…), couplée à des analyses en sonde atomique tomographique et à des essais de traction, a été mise en place dans l’idée de fournir un faisceau d’éléments permettant de proposer un scénario pour interpréter les différentes évolutions microstructurales en question. Il a ainsi pu être mis en évidence que l’étape de tréfilage provoquait la dissolution de la cémentite induisant la sursaturation de la ferrite en carbone. Cette microstructure fortement hors équilibre suite à la déformation, revient alors à un état thermodynamiquement plus stable au cours du vieillissement post-tréfilage à travers trois mécanismes différents : la ségrégation des atomes de carbone sur les défauts microstructuraux et la précipitation de carbures intermédiaires métastables suivie de leur transformation en cémentite. / Steelcords are produced by assembling cold-drawn pearlitic steel wires with a composition close to the eutectoid one. The cold-drawing step has two goals: it provides the final shape of the wire and its very high mechanical resistance (about 3500 MPa for wires with a diameter of 200 µm). Nowadays, the industrial target aims at achieving a mechanical resistance of about 5000 MPa in order to lower the quantity of steelcord introduced into tires so decreasing their weight and their cost. However, there are two major obstacles to obtaining these ultra-high strength wires. Indeed, the steel reinforcement during cold-drawing induces significant microstructural and mechanical evolutions, which embrittle the wires. This phenomenon is considered as the limit of drawability beyond which wires cannot be plastically deformed anymore. In addition to that, post-drawing ageing can also induce a microstructural evolution and a loss of ductility due to storage at room temperature or during heat treatments at low temperatures (< 200°C). This instability of the wires microstructure can be very damaging for the assembly step leading to wire breakage. The aim of this work was to contribute to the assessment of the microstructural evolution responsible for the variations of mechanical properties that appear during drawing and post-drawing ageing. To achieve this goal, an original experimental approach combining global and indirect characterization techniques (thermoelectric power, electrical resistivity, mechanical spectroscopy, calorimetry…) with Atom Probe Tomography analyses has been set up in order to provide a range of evidences that converge towards a unique scenario to interpret the different microstructural evolution. It was thus shown that cold-drawing leads to cementite dissolution inducing over saturation of ferrite in carbon atoms. This non-equilibrium microstructure tends to return to a more stable state during post-drawing ageing through three different ageing mechanisms: the segregation of carbon atoms on microstructural defects, the precipitation of secondary carbides and their transformation in cementite.