This study investigated law enforcement officers' perceptions of the legal, normative, and practical considerations that are implicit in their decisions when faced with using physical force. Law enforcement officers observe and protect fundamental human rights. A significant problem, however, is that physical force is sometimes misused, impacting public confidence in police services. The study was framed by Durkheim's conflict theory and Beirie's concepts of police corporate culture and social control. It used a grounded theory method and predeveloped case scenarios presented to 2 male focus groups of 7 and 6 participants respectively, and 2 female focus groups of 5 and 7 participants, who were police officers in Canada, to explore for gender differences in response strategies, decisions to use force, and arguments for their decisions, following the model set forth by Waddington (2009). Additionally, data were also collected through 12 individual semistructured interviews. Open, axial, and selective manual coding was used in the data analysis. The data collection and analysis for this study resulted in the development of, the paradigm of safety, a theory that reflects how female officers' use-of-force decisions differ from the decisions of their male colleagues. These decision factors, when incorporated into their response strategies, reflect the timing and need for using force. This study promotes positive social change by providing information that will inform police policies and training practices. This information will enable police administrators and legislators to enhance workplace safety for their officers that are more consistent with democratic rights and freedoms for citizens by reducing use-of-force in conflict circumstances.

The purpose of this paper has been to describe the change of governance in Turkey from 2005 until 2018. The method that has been applied is a comparative study as well as a case study where a theory of democracy was used to describe and compare the changes of governance in Turkey between 2005 and 2018. Robert Dahls theory of democracy was used for this paper to determine the change in governance between the relevant years. The analysis of each institution for each year was than compared to finally determine any change in governance. The study showed that the governance of Turkey has taken further backsliding steps of democracy compared to the situation in 2005. The changes consist of a centralization and increase of power within the presidency and further limitations within some rights and freedoms. The possibility for citizens to engage in politics in different ways, to express the opinions whether good or bad, to search for alternative information and to have the right to vote in free and fair elections have all worsened in 2018 compared to 2005.

<p>The purpose of the thesis is to present how twelve women from different segments of society define democracy and how they experience democracy in their daily life. Through meetings and interviews I wanted to learn what these women consider democracy in India to be, how they recognise democracy and rights associated with democracy in their daily lives and how they reflect upon gender equality in relation to democracy.</p><p>This thesis is the result of a two-month field study in Maharashtra and interviews with twelve women from different segments of society. The women have been divided into three different groups based on educational level, aiming to find patterns of similarities and differences in how democracy is defined and recognised.</p><p>Women from the first group, illiterate or with only a few years in school, are aware of their right to vote in elections but not all of them have heard the word democracy. None of them are involved in any kind of organisation or self-help group, they either lack interest in politics or have relatives not allowing them to enter the public sphere. Democratic rights and gender equality are not recognised in their daily lives. Their opportunity to change their situation is limited.</p><p>Women from the second group are active in either politics or in an organisation. They know the word democracy and their rights associated with the concept. All of these women have basic education and families supporting them in their political engagements. Family is very important in India, in all endeavours of a woman’s life; education, job and whom to marry.</p><p>The third group includes women with higher education, a vocational degree. They are much aware of their democratic rights, but recognise difficulties for women to claim upon them in different stages and situations of their lives. The situation of women is complex, they have the possibility to enter the public sphere, but women with careers inevitably have two jobs: the employment and the responsibility over the household. Women can enter the public sphere earlier dominated by men, but men entering the private sphere and taking part in household chores seem not to be possible in the near future.</p> / <p>Syftet med denna uppsats är att presentera hur tolv kvinnor från olika samhällsgrupper ser på demokrati och hur de upplever demokrati i sin vardag. Genom möten och intervjuer har jag studerat hur dessa kvinnor definierar demokrati, hur de upplever demokrati och associerade rättigheter i sin vardag samt hur de reflekterar kring jämställdhet i relation till demokrati.</p><p>Denna uppsats är resultatet av ett två månaders fältarbete i Maharashtra och intervjuer med tolv kvinnor från olika samhällsgrupper. Kvinnorna är indelade i tre olika grupper, baserade på utbildningsnivå, för att finna likheter och skillnader i hur de definierar demokrati och hur de upplever demokrati i sin vardag.</p><p>Kvinnorna i den första gruppen, illitterata eller med ett fåtal skolår, är medvetna om sin rätt att rösta i politiska val men alla känner inte till ordet demokrati. Ingen av dem är aktiv i någon organisation eller självhjälpgrupp, antingen på grund av att de saknar intresse eller av den anledning att familjen inte tillåter dem att äntra den offentliga sfären. Varken demokratiska rättigheter eller jämlikhet är närvarande i dessa kvinnors vardag. Deras möjlighet att förändra sin levnadssituation är begränsad.</p><p>Kvinnorna i den andra gruppen är politiskt aktiva eller verksamma inom annan organisation. De känner till ordet demokrati och sina demokratiskt tillskrivna rättigheter. Dessa kvinnor har grundläggande utbildning och familjer som stödjer dem i deras politiska åtaganden. I Indien är familjen viktig i alla skeden och beslut i en kvinnas liv, i frågor rörande utbildning, arbete och blivande make.</p><p>Den tredje gruppen inkluderar kvinnor med högre utbildning och yrkesarbetande kvinnor. De är väl medvetna om sina demokratiska rättigheter men ser svårigheter för kvinnor att åberopa dem i olika skeden och situationer i livet. Kvinnors situation är komplex, även om de har möjligheten att äntra den offentliga sfären så har karriärkvinnor oundvikligen två arbeten: yrkesarbetet och det fulla ansvaret för hemmet. Kvinnor kan äntra den offentliga sfären som dominerats av män. Men att män ska äntra den privata sfären, och vara delaktiga i hemmets arbete, verkar inte vara möjligt inom den närmsta framtiden.</p>

The purpose of the thesis is to present how twelve women from different segments of society define democracy and how they experience democracy in their daily life. Through meetings and interviews I wanted to learn what these women consider democracy in India to be, how they recognise democracy and rights associated with democracy in their daily lives and how they reflect upon gender equality in relation to democracy. This thesis is the result of a two-month field study in Maharashtra and interviews with twelve women from different segments of society. The women have been divided into three different groups based on educational level, aiming to find patterns of similarities and differences in how democracy is defined and recognised. Women from the first group, illiterate or with only a few years in school, are aware of their right to vote in elections but not all of them have heard the word democracy. None of them are involved in any kind of organisation or self-help group, they either lack interest in politics or have relatives not allowing them to enter the public sphere. Democratic rights and gender equality are not recognised in their daily lives. Their opportunity to change their situation is limited. Women from the second group are active in either politics or in an organisation. They know the word democracy and their rights associated with the concept. All of these women have basic education and families supporting them in their political engagements. Family is very important in India, in all endeavours of a woman’s life; education, job and whom to marry. The third group includes women with higher education, a vocational degree. They are much aware of their democratic rights, but recognise difficulties for women to claim upon them in different stages and situations of their lives. The situation of women is complex, they have the possibility to enter the public sphere, but women with careers inevitably have two jobs: the employment and the responsibility over the household. Women can enter the public sphere earlier dominated by men, but men entering the private sphere and taking part in household chores seem not to be possible in the near future. / Syftet med denna uppsats är att presentera hur tolv kvinnor från olika samhällsgrupper ser på demokrati och hur de upplever demokrati i sin vardag. Genom möten och intervjuer har jag studerat hur dessa kvinnor definierar demokrati, hur de upplever demokrati och associerade rättigheter i sin vardag samt hur de reflekterar kring jämställdhet i relation till demokrati. Denna uppsats är resultatet av ett två månaders fältarbete i Maharashtra och intervjuer med tolv kvinnor från olika samhällsgrupper. Kvinnorna är indelade i tre olika grupper, baserade på utbildningsnivå, för att finna likheter och skillnader i hur de definierar demokrati och hur de upplever demokrati i sin vardag. Kvinnorna i den första gruppen, illitterata eller med ett fåtal skolår, är medvetna om sin rätt att rösta i politiska val men alla känner inte till ordet demokrati. Ingen av dem är aktiv i någon organisation eller självhjälpgrupp, antingen på grund av att de saknar intresse eller av den anledning att familjen inte tillåter dem att äntra den offentliga sfären. Varken demokratiska rättigheter eller jämlikhet är närvarande i dessa kvinnors vardag. Deras möjlighet att förändra sin levnadssituation är begränsad. Kvinnorna i den andra gruppen är politiskt aktiva eller verksamma inom annan organisation. De känner till ordet demokrati och sina demokratiskt tillskrivna rättigheter. Dessa kvinnor har grundläggande utbildning och familjer som stödjer dem i deras politiska åtaganden. I Indien är familjen viktig i alla skeden och beslut i en kvinnas liv, i frågor rörande utbildning, arbete och blivande make. Den tredje gruppen inkluderar kvinnor med högre utbildning och yrkesarbetande kvinnor. De är väl medvetna om sina demokratiska rättigheter men ser svårigheter för kvinnor att åberopa dem i olika skeden och situationer i livet. Kvinnors situation är komplex, även om de har möjligheten att äntra den offentliga sfären så har karriärkvinnor oundvikligen två arbeten: yrkesarbetet och det fulla ansvaret för hemmet. Kvinnor kan äntra den offentliga sfären som dominerats av män. Men att män ska äntra den privata sfären, och vara delaktiga i hemmets arbete, verkar inte vara möjligt inom den närmsta framtiden.

Hensikt: Hensikten meddenne studien var å beskrive hvem som får uttale seg, hvordan uttalelser blir implementert og hvordan folkehelseperspektivet og universell utforming ivaretas i norske offentlige dokumenter, samt å se om demokratiske rettigheter ivaretas. Metode: Det ble anvendt kvalitativ dokumentanalyse med supplerende intervjuer, og nasjonal transportplan 2014 –2023 (NTP) ble benyttet som eksempel.178 dokumenter ble gjennomgått: 175 høringsuttalelser, et dokument med privatpersoners meninger, samt utkast til og vedtatt NTP 2014 –2023. Resultat:175 høringsuttalelser ble mottatt i arbeidet med NTP2014 –2023, men uttalelser fra 18 fylkeskommuner og storbykommunene Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim og Stavanger ble vektlagt mest. Endel uttalelser omhandlet folkehelse, særlig knyttet til økt bruk av gange og sykling. Universell utforming ble ogsånevnt blant innkommende høringsuttalelser, mens folkehelseaspektet generelt ble lite prioritert av mange aktører. Mange høringsuttalelser omhandlet i stedet ønsker om økte økonomiske rammer til anleggsarbeider. Konklusjon: Analysen viste at hensynet til universell utforming ivaretas, men at folkehelseperspektivetog helsefremmende arbeidbør løftes i større grad.Det kan virke som om en del fokuser knyttet til økonomiske hensyn, uten at blikket løftes og det ses fremover på fremtidige innsparinger. Det bør fortsatt arbeides for at så mange som muligfår anledning til å uttale seg i utarbeidelsen av offentlige norske dokumenter slik at demokratiske rettigheter ivaretas. / Aim:This study aimed to describe who is given the opportunity to commenton Norwegian public documents; how comments are implemented; and how theperspective on public health and universal design is maintained. It also aimed to determine whether democraticrights were ensured. Method: Thestudy used qualitative document analysis with supplemental interviews, and Norway’s National Transport Plan 2014 –2023 (NTP) was used as an example. 178 documents were examined: 175 consultative statements, one document containing individualopinions, and the draft and adopted version of NTP 2014 –2023. Results: Among 175 consultative statements received during the preparation of NTP 2014 –2023, consultat ivestatements from 18 County Councils and the municipalities Oslo, Bergen Trondheim and Stavanger received the most emphasis. Some statements addressed public health, especially increased use of walking or bicycling, and many mentioned universal design.The public health aspect in general,was not a priorityamong many actors. Instead, many statements indicated a desirefor increased funding for construction work. Conclusion: The analysis revealed that considerations regarding universal design are maintained, whereas public health and health promotion should receive increased attention. Many comments focused on economic considerations, but none appeared to look ahead and identify potential savings. It is still necessary to ensure that as many as possible are given the opportunity to speak their mind, in order for democratic rights to be maintained / <p>ISBN 978-91-86739-73-7</p>

Ce mémoire cherche à déterminer si la logique de la majorité de la Cour suprême dans l’arrêt Harper c. Canada (Procureur général) demeure valide aujourd’hui, près de deux décennies après que cet arrêt, qui avalise le régime de plafonnement des dépenses électorales des tierces parties, ait été rendu. À cette fin, le régime de plafonnement prévu par la Loi électorale du Canada est examiné en détail, de même que les motifs de la majorité. Ces préliminaires achevés, le cœur de l’analyse est entamé. Trois phénomènes sont étudiés pour déterminer si le raisonnement de la majorité dans Harper doit être remis ou non en question : l’avènement d’une dynamique de « campagne permanente », la monté des technologies de l’information et le déclin des partis politiques. Il est conclu que la logique déployée dans l’arrêt Harper demeure valide, mais qu’elle appelle certains changements à la Loi électorale actuelle. À cet effet, les plafonds préélectoraux des tiers devraient être éliminés et l’usage de sites internet personnels ou de compte de médias sociaux devrait être assujetti à un régime de plafonnement. / This work seeks to determine whether the reasoning of the Supreme Court majority in Harper v. Canada (Attorney General), which validates third parties’ spending limits during the election period,still avails almost two decades after being rendered. The limits on third parties' spending as established by the Canada Election Act are examined in detail. The majority’s reasons are also discussed at length. Then, the core analysis begins. Three new social phenomena are examined to determine whether the Court’s reasoning in Harper should be called into question. These phenomena are: the advent of a “permanent campaign” in Canada, the rise of new information technologies and the decline of political parties. It is concluded that Harper’s logic remains highly compelling, though it may entail some modifications to the current electoral law, such as the abolition of pre-electoral spending limits and the application of some form of limitation to electoral spending regarding personal web sites and social media account.

Lobbying should be strictly regulated – that is the major finding of this thesis. The thesis presents many reasons to enact stricter regulations. The principle one being that, as lightly regulated as it is, lobbying is corroding democracy in both Canada and the United States. The thesis opens with a deep investigation of how lobbying works in both countries. There are examples taken from the literature, as well as original qualitative interviews of Canadian lobbyists, former politicians, and officials. Together, these make it clear that there is an intimate relationship between lobbying and campaign financing. The link between the two is sufficiently tight that lobbying and campaign financing should be considered mirrors of each other for the purposes of regulatory design and constitutional jurisprudence. They both have large impacts on government decision-making. Left lightly regulated, lobbying and campaign financing erode the processes of democracy, damage policy-making, and feed an inequality spiral into plutocracy. These have become major challenges of our time. The thesis examines the lobbying regulations currently in place. It finds the regulatory systems of both countries wanting. Since stricter regulation is required to protect democracy and equality, the thesis considers what constitutional constraints, if any, would stand in the way. This, primarily, is a study of how proposed stronger lobbying regulations would interact with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s. 2 (free expression and association rights) and s. 3 (democratic rights). The principal findings are that legislation which restricted lobbying as proposed would probably be upheld by the Canadian court, but struck down by the American court, due to differences in their constitutional jurisprudence. The thesis contends that robust lobbying regulations would align with Canadian Charter values, provide benefits to democracy, improve government decision-making, increase equality, and create more room for citizen voices. The thesis concludes with a set of proposed principles for lobbying reform and an evaluation of two specific reforms: limits on business lobbying and funding for citizen groups. Although the thesis focuses on Canadian and American lobbying regulations, its lessons are broadly applicable to any jurisdiction that is considering regulating lobbying.

This thesis is an examination of whether the “egalitarian model” for political finance that has been established by the Supreme Court of Canada, other Canadian courts and legal scholars and commentators is actually egalitarian and has been applied consistently (in Chapter 2), and whether Canada’s political finance system measures up to the Court’s model (in Chapters 3 and 4), and how it could be changed to comply with a more egalitarian model that would also be ethical in terms of preventing even the appearance of a conflict of interest (in Chapters 6 and 7). Chapter 1 sets out a general theoretical framework for evaluating the Supreme Court’s egalitarian model, and I develop and set out a more egalitarian model in Chapter 5. In the Chapter 8 conclusion, I summarize the findings and propose structural and positive Charter rights court cases as a way forward, given that the platforms federal politicians and political parties from the past few elections, and the reports of parliamentary committees, have not called for the most of the changes I propose are needed to make the system more egalitarian. The thesis addresses political finance broadly defined as money, property, use of property, gifts, services, favours and other benefits and advantages provided to nomination contestants, election candidates and political party leadership contestants, electoral district associations, political parties, politicians and their staff during election campaign periods and also during the time period between elections, including support provided by “third-party” interest groups, lobbyists and other individuals, and by media outlets. In Chapter 3, I examine the rules that apply to each of these political actors in the areas of registration, donations and loans, spending, public subsidies and disclosure (including auditing), including a separate section on the role of media and social media. Given that political systems include providers (whether as contractors or donors) of money, property and the use of property (including gifts and other benefits and advantages), and services (including favours) to politicians, and given that providers could be lobbyists, I also examine in Chapter 4 the rules concerning gifts, favours and other benefits and relations between voters, lobbyists and politicians, and concerning the conflicts of interest that can be caused by these activities. Other than disclosure and auditing, I do not cover enforcement measures or systems in any of the areas. However, I do note at various points in the thesis that, as several studies and history have shown clearly, effective enforcement measures, policies and practices are key to ensure compliance with such rules. The main contentions that I make are: that the key principles of the Supreme Court of Canada’s egalitarian model have not been consistently upheld by the Court and other Canadian courts, that Canada’ federal political finance system does not fulfill the Court’s egalitarian model, and that several changes are needed to make the model and the system more egalitarian, only a few of which have been addressed by Canadian courts and scholars to date. These contentions counter the claim made in the Court’s rulings, and by many scholars and commentators, that Canada’s political finance system has developed and is based on an egalitarian model. In Chapters 5 through 7, I develop a more egalitarian model and set out specific proposed changes to make Canada’s systems more egalitarian, both in theory and in practice, within the framework of a democratic good government political system (meaning a system with separation of powers, elections, human rights protections, rule of law etc.) and a mixed market economy with both public sector institutions and private sector businesses, unions and other organizations (cooperatives, non-profit, religious organizations etc.). Both the model and many of the specific proposed measures should also be applicable in other jurisdictions with different political systems and economic systems. The framework of 19 standards for a more egalitarian model that I develop in Chapter 5 is based mainly on John Rawls’ theory of justice, but modified and expanded to incorporate critiques of Rawls’ theory, other legal principles and democratic good government theories, international standards, government ethics case law, behavioural psychology studies, and evidence of the public’s expectations. The 201 proposals I make in Chapters 6 and 7 for specific changes to the rules of Canada’s current federal political finance system (again, broadly defined), are based on the model, measures from various jurisdictions in Canada and elsewhere, and international standards. I am not claiming that these changes would definitely result in “better” or more “public interest” policy-making decisions, however that would be determined. I am only contending that the framework I develop is more egalitarian than the Supreme Court’s model, and that the rule changes I suggest would make the political finance, gifts, favours, conflict of interest and lobbying systems align with the more egalitarian model I propose. I primarily use the doctrinal research methodology by examining scholarly research and, given I also examine aspects of the laws of Canadian provinces and municipalities, and other countries, I also deploy some aspects of the comparative methodology (most fully when comparing Canada’s federal rules to Quebec’s rules, and somewhat when comparing Canada’s rules to the U.S. and U.K. rules). The research results from these sources inform the conclusions I set out in my thesis. The thesis advances knowledge in the following areas: 1. It is the first complete evaluation of the federal Canadian political finance, gifts-favours-benefits, conflict of interest and lobbying rules and systems in their current state as of May 2023, based on the findings of extensive new research into key parts of these systems; 2. It sets out the first comprehensive analysis of how the Supreme Court of Canada’s egalitarian model has been applied by the Court and other courts inconsistently, in ways that do not comply with the model; 3. It sets out the first analysis of how Canada’s political finance statutory rules, again defined broadly to include rules that apply to donations, loans, gifts, services, favours and other benefits, lobbying and conflicts of interest, do not comply with the Supreme Court’s egalitarian model, based in part on new statistical research set out in 28 charts, and; 4. It sets out a new theoretical framework based on 19 standards, and a comprehensive set of 201 innovative proposals for changes to make Canada’s political finance rules (again defined broadly) more egalitarian, and more ethical in terms of preventing conflicts of interest. Five comprehensive studies of key parts of the political finance, ethics and lobbying systems are also proposed to gather key information needed to inform the design of some of the 201 proposed changes. Eight structural and positive Charter rights cases are also proposed to challenge current rules that do not comply with the egalitarian model.