The goal I have pursued in writing this dissertation has been to provide the most complete account that I could manage of the various aspects of language that can be labelled metalinguistic, both in the language-system and in discourse. On a rough characterisation, metalanguage is language about language. Since I understand language both as a ‘potential’ (the language-system) and as its actualisation (language as discourse), there are theoretically four situations that can be subsumed under the term ‘metalanguage’: 1. there are lexical items (units in the system) that denote aspects of the system (preposition, noun, conjugation, plural, etc.); 2. there are items that denote elements of discourse (words and phrases like the aforementioned, the latter, etc.). At the same time, there are 3. utterances about the system (e.g. ‘Boston’ is a noun), and 4. utterances about discourse (i.e. about other utterances or parts of utterances, e.g. The old cow said teddible instead of terrible). In both 3 and 4, we have words that reflexively mention linguistic sequences. Following Rey-Debove, I have chosen to call these ‘autonyms’.Note also that discourse about language can be combined with discourse about extralinguistic reality. An utterance about a situation in the world can secondarily say something, for example, about language use; such is the case in The U.S. advocates ‘military action’, as newspapermen call it now, where a comment about a euphemism is appended to a statement about ‘the world’.All in all, this amounts to a fairly large body of data that is varied in kind. My goal has been to bring some order to this variegated set, to highlight in what respects its elements are similar and dissimilar. Thus, I have sought to sort out a number of issues that had not, as far as I could judge, been treated satisfactorily on previous occasions, and to make my descriptions compatible with the theory that was gradually taking shape. In particular, I have underlined the strong connections between the system-level aspects of metalanguage and its discourse manifestations, and I have been led to suggest that the latter ‘leak into’ the system. Besides, I have tried to give a more thorough account of certain properties of metalinguistic discourse, notably the recursiveness of mention or quotation, and its referential diversity. When I felt that I had come to an adequate account of metalinguistic discourse, I have attempted to supply a typology of its various manifestations that would integrate most of the criteria brought up in previous attempts. In the final part of the dissertation, I have brought together what I regard as a series of genuine challenges to the best existing theories of metalinguistic discourse, and have attempted to frame what possible solutions could be.THINGS IN SENTENCES, INFINITE LEXICON? P-ÊÊ UNE CODA APRÈS RECA + CHAPTER 8***The very notion of metalanguage originated in formal logic in the first half of the 20th c. Soon, some of the concepts developed by logicians were taken over by philosophers of language (and subsequently by a few linguists). That was notably the case with the distinction between the use and the mention of a linguistic sequence; use designating the ordinary, transparent, employment of an expression to denote something outside language and mention its being chosen as a topic for discussion. When the subject came under the scrutiny of philosophers of language, the essentially prescriptive approach of the logician (the logician decreed which features his languages and metalanguages should possess), was turned into an attempt at describing actual linguistic mechanisms. It is in this tradition that I situate myself.Philosophers of language have turned out to be particularly interested in quotation (the mention of linguistic expressions), but I have thought it useful to introduce a term that covered not just quotation, but also mention-without-quote-marks, as well as hybrid cases like example 5. This term is reflexive metalinguistic demonstration, but for convenience’ sake I shall make do with metalinguistic demonstration.In Chapter 2, I have examined in detail the main theories of metalinguistic demonstration put forward in the course of the 20th c. namely the Name, Description, Demonstrative and Identity theories. In the process, I have been able to gradually identify the various properties of metalinguistic demonstrations that should be regarded as essential. And I have also formed a clearer idea of the body of data that a theory should be able to account for. In the end, I have been able to outline what I believe is a sound theory of metalinguistic demonstrations. This theory is chiefly informed by the proposals of François Recanati (2000, 2001), supplemented with insights of Paul Saka (1998), both of whom are indebted to the Demonstrative and Identity accounts.My reasons for using Recanati (2001) as the backbone of my own theory are the following. Recanati has successfully drawn the line between two types of meaning conveyed by metalinguistic demonstrations, namely ‘pictorial’ and ‘conventional linguistic’ meaning, something that had not been done with that clarity before. Besides, he has had the wisdom to give up the standard assumption that all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential, an assumption that inevitably led to theoretical dead ends. Moreover, drawing on the first two insights, Recanati has also separated out the syntactic and pragmatic aspects that were often confused in previous approaches.There is no doubt that the theory put forward by Recanati in 2001 is the most empirically adequate that can be found in the literature. Besides, it also accounts for an impressive range of key properties. Still, there are two interesting properties that received very little attention from Recanati, that is, referential diversity and recursiveness. Though Paul Saka has argued in favour of both in a 1998 paper, I believe his defence to have been somewhat clumsy. And therefore I have tried to offer more convincing evidence in favour of these properties.Let’s start with ReferenceAs Recanati has shown, not all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential expressions. But there is one aspect of reference that he says very little about: the sort or sorts of referents that a referential autonym can have. The theory implicitly suggests that autonyms can only refer to types. (Many writers have claimed more robustly and more explicitlythat there was only one sort of referents for autonyms, always either types or classes of tokens).I hold this view to be incorrect. As I’ve indicated in Chapter 4 of the thesis, I believe that several sorts of referents must be distinguished. Let us have a few examples:Run is a verbRun has three lettersShe said, “I ain’t EVER gonna tell ya”The first refers to a lexeme, since the predicate applies to runs, ran, running, as well.The second, only to a form (since not true of running or runs).Both could still be said to be abstract objects, and one might wish to call these ‘types’.The third, however, well and truly seems to refer to a token, the particular utterance produced by the woman behind she, witness the mimicry involved in the direct speech report.In my discussion of the next property, I offer a further argument in favour of referential diversity.2. Metalinguistic demonstrations can be iterated (repeated), a property usually described as recursiveness, and which has given rise to some controversies. Some demonstrativists, notably Cappelen & Lepore, because they hold the interior of a quotation to be semantically inert, have rejected the idea of recursiveness. I think, however, that their rejection comes from their failure to discern several types of recursiveness. In my dissertation, I have distinguished three; I shall only sketch two here.“ ‘Boston’ ” is an autonym.Typographical recursiveness: hardly very interesting, since it is a mechanical operation that can be repeated at will.The next pair of examples throws a more interesting light on the matter:‘Boston’ is a six-letter word.In each utterance of the previous example, “ ‘Boston’ ” is used to refer to an orthographic formBoston enclosed in two pairs of quote marks refers to particular tokens of Boston in a single pair of quote marks, as are produced when uttering a token of the first sentence, ‘Boston’ is a six-letter word. In each utterance of that sentence, the subject, ‘Boston’, itself refers, this time to the name Boston. This means that we have a situation in which an autonym refers to another autonym which also refers: reference here is iterated.This is actually no problem for the assumption of the inertness of the interior of the quotation, because reference is directed outwards: the interior of the quotation itself (the token displayed) remains inert. Note that referential recursiveness is only possible when one has a meta-quotation that refers to a token that is itself a referential autonym. This confirms the need for the theory to accommodate reference to particular tokens.I have made further use of the theory of metalinguistic demonstrations in Chapter 6 of the thesis, which is devoted to sketching a typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. In this connection, I have tried to bring together different types of discriminating factors that had been used in previous classifications (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, typographical, lexical). These did not seem to be compatible from the outset, but then I realised that they might perhaps all be integrated into a single typology if I adopted an interpreter’s perspective. I reflected that that perspective provided a criterion for determining which characteristics of metalinguistic demonstrations would count as relevant variables for a typology: only those that made a ‘difference for the interpreter’ (i.e. affected his/her interpretative processes) would be retained.I also took advanatge of the general theory for the interpretation of utterances that has been set out in some recent publications, notably by Bach and Recanati (and which I outline in Chapter 3 of the thesis), and eventually reached what I regard as a decent result. Moreover, I also made a couple of interesting discoveries. The first one is that quite a bit of the interpretation of an utterance takes place at a ‘pre-interpretative’ level, that is, befor a sentence has been clearly identified (disambiguated). In particular, there are significant pictorial aspects of metalinguistic demonstrations that enter into the disambiguation process rather than into interpretation proper. The second one is that there is an impressive number of aspects of meaning that are linked to the speaker’s intentions, and should theoretically require access to the wide context of an utterance to be processed, that can be accessed at very low (semantic) levels of interpretation.In the final part of this presentation, I wish to examine a couple of instances of hybridity that face the theory with a more serious challenge than example 5 on the first slide. That example was easily explained in terms of simultaneous use and mention (the standard account in the literature): the same sequence, military action, was used ordinarily and, secondarily, demonstrated as being a particular form of euphemism. Other hybrids, on the other hand, do not lend themselves to such an analysis in a straightforward way. The first example I wish to bring up raises an interesting problem in connection with the notion of grammaticality:Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.This can be rewritten as a pair of sentences, one for use the other for mention. We get:Use :Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as volontiers professeur de moi-même.Mention :Robbe-Grillet uses the expression “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.Although the mention line raises no special issues, there are great doubts as to the grammaticality of the ordinary-use line: a language-shift occurs in the middle of the sentence, and is not signalled by any marker, unlike in the initial hybrid. Though Recanati’s framework allows for language-shifts, and could therefore be relied on to argue that the correct interpretation can be ascribed to the French words in the example, it does not state rules determining at which spot in an utterance such a shift is acceptable grammatically. In other words, it says nothing about the possibility of a grammar that would straddle English and French. Fortunately, the idea of such grammars is supported by the limited research that has been carried out about code-switching. So, there may be theoretical backing for the assumption that the use line may after all be grammatical (with respect to a hybrid grammar).Note that these remarks are valid, I believe, not just for the use line of the twofold paraphrase, but for the initial hybrid too. Indeed, it is not clear — though some would be ready to say so — that the presence of quote marks is enough to alter the grammaticality of an utterance.Note also that an example like the previous one is a reminder of an essential fact about the work of language scholars: they start out to describe and/or explain some empirical data they find significant. But as things get more complicated, they must continually make decisions as to what must be acknowledged as relevant data for their research. Every step of the way, there may be a temptation to dismiss data — in the present case, on grounds of ungrammaticality — because these data threaten the validity of the theory being devised. Here, thanks to an analogy with grammatical accounts of code-switching, a case can be made for the grammaticality of utterances like the one under consideration. It is these kinds of extensions that broaden the linguist’s horizons and make research worthwhile.The second example I wish to examine raises interesting issues concerning iconicity. Though I have said nothing about it so far, iconicity is perhaps the single most important notion in any discussion of metalinguistic demonstration. In a nutshell, the basic assumption about ‘how such a demonstration makes sense’ is that the tokens displayed in a mentioning utterance are iconically related to the target of the demonstration. Iconicity can initially be understood as a matter of formal resemblance (cf the first batch of examples on Slide 1). The following example shows that the notion must be made more flexble than that:Descartes said that man “is a thinking substance”.Use: Descartes said that man is a thinking substance.Mention: Descartes said “is a thinking substance”.It can be seen that the mention line of the paraphrase is truth-conditionally incorrect: Descartes did not produce a token of is a thinking substance, since he was writing in Latin, not English. What Descartes said was est res cogitans. This might be taken to imply that the relation between the English tokens displayed and the Latin target is not a matter of iconicity. I would, with several other writers, suggest another direction: There is iconicity in this example, but the concept must be understood to be flexible and adaptable to contextual constraints. I believe such a conception to be necessary if one wants to be able to account for metalinguistic demonstrations within a single explanatory framework. There are too many instances of quotations that are not supported by formal identity to maintain a rigid notion of iconicity. I have added a last example on the slideConclusionAlthough I originally aspired to a comprehensive survey of things metalinguistic, I cannot but concede that there are still multiple aspects of the reflexive use of language that need looking into. I believe, however, that I have been able to shed some light on some areas of the debate. For instance, I believe that my discussion of the recursiveness and referential diversity of autonyms goes one step further than previous discussions. In particular, I hope to have been able to show convincingly that, contrary to a widespread opinion, an autonym can refer to various object, notably individual tokens. When these results are added to an excellent theory like Recanati’s, one ends up with a powerful explanatory apparatus. Moreover, this apparatus has the added advantage that it can easily be integrated into the general theory for the interpretation of utterances which I have alluded to before.I have taken advantage of this compatibility to outline my interpreter’s typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. Whether that effort was entirely successful or not, I think it has incidentally provided an excellent testing ground for the general theory. If only in that respect, the attempt was worth a try, since it shed light on the importance of pre-interpretative processes and on the conventional encoding of aspects of meaning that are otherwise heavily dependent on speaker’s intentions.Finally, I believe that the work doen in Chapter 8 has brought to the fore a number of question that deserve to be investigated at greater length in future. There are still dark areas in the study of world/language hybrids, but there also more general questions, e.g. regarding grammaticality and iconicity that need looking into. / Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation langue et littérature / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

“The Ancient Egyptian Demonology Project: Second Millennium BCE” was intended and funded as a three-year project (2013-2016) to explore the world of Ancient Egyptian demons in the 2nd millennium BC. It intends to create a classification and ontology of benevolent and malevolent demons. Whereas ancient Egyptians did not use a specific term denoting “demons”, liminal beings known from various other cultures such as δαίμονες, ghosts, angels, Mischwesen, genies, etc., were nevertheless described in texts and illustrations. The project aims to collect philological, iconographical and archaeological evidence to understand the religious beliefs, practices, interactions and knowledge not only of the ancient Egyptians’ daily life but also their perception of the afterlife. Till today scholars, as well as interested laymen, have had no resource to consult for specific examples of those beings, except for rather general encyclopaedias that include all kinds of divine beings or the Iconography of Deities and Demons (IDD) project that is ongoing. Neither provides, however, a searchable platform for both texts and images. The database created by the Demonology Project: 2K is designed to remedy this gap. The idea is to provide scholars and the public with a database that allows statistical analyses and innovative data visualisation, accessible and augmentable from all over the world to stimulate the dialogue and open communication not only within Egyptology but also with neighbouring disciplines. For the time-span of the three year project a pilot database was planned as a foundation for further data-collection and analysis. The data that were chosen date to the 2nd Millennium BCE and originate from objects of daily life (headrests and ivory wands), as well as from objects related to the afterlife, (coffins and ‘Book of the Dead’ manuscripts). This material, connected by its religious purposes, nevertheless provides a cross-section through ancient Egyptian religious practice. The project is funded by the Leverhulme Trust and includes Kasia Szpakowska (director) who supervises the work of the two participating PhD students in Egyptology. The project does not include funds for computer scientists or specialists in digital humanities. Therefore, the database is designed, developed and input by the members of the team only. The focus of my presentation will be the structure of the database that faces the challenge to include both textual and iconographical evidence. I will explain the organisation of the data, search patterns and the opportunities of their visualisation and possible research outcome. Furthermore, I will discuss the potentials the database already possesses and might generate in the future for scholars and the public likewise. Since the evidence belongs to numerous collections from all over the world, I would like to address the problems of intellectual property and copyright with the solution we pursue for releasing the database for registered usage onto the internet.

The primary purpose of this study is to provide connections between a formal motivic analysis and the programmatic content of David Maslanka's three works for unaccompanied marimba: Variations on Lost Love (1977), My Lady White (1980), and A Solemn Music (2013). A comparison of the compositional process of each of these works is proposed through terms of Maslanka's use of depiction. Depiction is the action or result of representing through drawing, painting, or other art form, in this case, music. In each work for unaccompanied marimba, Maslanka uses this process of depiction in a unique way. The depictive mediums are categorized as evocative, representative, and introspective and these distinct approaches to depiction lead to three drastically different musical works. The different methods of depicting source materials are the distinguishing characteristics that separate these three works for solo marimba. This document includes a motivic analysis and comparisons of compositional devices used in these three works. A brief overview of Maslanka's life and works as well as a listing of all of his works that feature percussion instruments are also included.

The aim with this study was to analyze and understand how begging is constructed as a social problem in Sweden between September of 2010 and the end of February in 2014 in debate articles in Dagens Nyheter. To do this I have chosen to use a social problems theory and critical discourse analysis to highlight some aspects in the process of defining the social problem. The study's main finding is that the construction of beggars and begging appears to be in a relatively extensive redefinition in the current situation. It is shown by, for example, a shift in focus in the discourse. For this reason, it is relevant for social work to examine how the construction progresses.

1 Abstract (in English): This dissertation compares depictions of Roman jewellery and brooches on monuments with archaeological finds. These monuments are mainly of funerary character and they come primarily from Noricum, Pannonia, Germania, in lesser amount also from Gallia and some other areas. Jewellery is also related to local variants of provincial clothing. A typology of Roman jewellery is given and subsequently I try to find analogies to these jewellery types among the depictions. The typology mentioned here doesn't represent a complete list of jewellery types and variants. It focuses on the most common variants and variants which are relevant to the depictions of jewellery. By comparison of the archaeological finds to the depictions it is possible to obtain more accurate image of the appearance of clothing in different provincial areas and also of some specific traditions related to jewellery. The majority of depicted jewellery was identified with archeaological finds of jewellery, yet some cases stay unclear.

Through the interpretation of the short rural prose of five selected authors of the second half of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century (K. V. Rais, J. K. Šlejhar, A. a V. Mrštíkové, T. Nováková, J. Kratochvíl) the thesis deals with the topic of the rural family according to a few aspects that were chosen on the basis of the historical and sociological findings of the technical literature about the rural family in the nineteenth century. The aspects treated by the above mentioned authors are ordered into the chapters "The family model", "Home and world", "Family and the rural year", "Family and the conditions of property", "Birth and death in the rural family" and "Family and traditions and the norms of religious life". The works of the authors are inserted into the context of the rural prose of the nineteenth century. The follow-up interpretation proves the differences in the approach of the authors to the depicted topic.

Master thesis The Media Image of Nurses in Czech TV Series discusses the ways of depicting nurses in Czech TV series shot from 2003 to 2014, particularly in Rose Garden Surgery 2, Hospital at Town Outskirts 20 Years Later, Hospital at Town Outskirts - New Fates and Doctors from Počátky. The goal of the thesis is to explore how the nurses are presented in the series and how the medial image of the nurses is perceived by medical staff themselves. The first part of the study describes the environment of current health care system, it presents an overview of health care professions and also the roles of doctors, nurses and patients. Attention is paid also to professional associations of health care staff. The second part introduces the environment of media in relation to TV series, specifically the terms genre (with focus to medical drama and soap opera genres), TV series, a character, representation and stereotypes. Chapter no. 3, the practical part of the thesis, deals with the research methodology followed by analysis of the individual series, more specifically by description of the plot of the selected episodes, by analysis of characters of the nurses, by analysis of reception of the nurses' characters by the audience and by a conclusion. For the first series - Rose Garden Surgery 2, where the...

La plupart des problématiques évoquées en esthétique au XXIe siècle tournent autour de la question du personnage de fiction. Dans ce cadre, cette étude essaie d'examiner comment les stratégies esthétiques et la poétique de la réception sont liées, à travers l'œuvre d'un auteur autrichien, Stefan Zweig, qui écrivit non seulement un grand nombre de récits fictionnels (essentiellement des nouvelles et romans), mais également des essais historiques et géographiques. Sa poétique du récit construit des situations de communication, comme le récit enchâssé, dans lesquelles le lecteur est invité à s'impliquer, face à un personnage dont les propres mots forment la seule version des faits racontés dans la fiction. Dans le même ordre d'idée, les personnages, qu'il soient héros de fiction ou de biographie, sont souvent placés dans une situation de crise, qui à la fois révèle une destinée intérieure et se présente comme une conséquence inéluctable de leurs actes. Tous les éléments de leur vie et de leur personnalité convergent donc, et s'expliquent les uns les autres, comme si les personnages de Zweig devenaient des êtres totalement cohérents. En conclusion, il semblerait que les personnages de biographie s'inscrivent dans les problématiques touchant également la fiction, et même qu'ils appartiennent à la catégorie des personnages de fiction ; il sera donc productif de leur appliquer les outils de la critique narrative, par exemple en ce qui concerne la perspective du lecteur et les mécanismes affectifs de projection. / Most of the aesthetics questions of the XXIst century are focalised on the issue of fictional character. In this frame, this study try to examine how aesthetical strategies and poetics of reception are connected through the case of an austrian author, Stefan Zweig, who wrote not only a lot of fictional narratives (essentially short stories and novels), but also historical and geographical essays.His narrative poetic draw situations of communication, like framed narrative, in which the reader is invited to implicate himself, face to a character whose words are the only one version of fictional facts. In the same order of ideas, characters, in fiction or in biographies, are often placed in a critical situation, that reveals in the same time an inner destiny and unaffordable consequence of the way they act. So all elements of life and personnality are convergent, and can explain each other, as if Zweig's characters were totally coherent beings. To conclude, it appears that biographical characters have fictional problematics, and more, they belong to the category of fictional characters ; consequently, it is productive to apply to it the tools of narrative critic, for instance in the perspective of reader and affectives mecanisms of projection.

O presente trabalho trata do tema da representação pictórica no contexto da representação artística e se concentra sobre as teses desenvolvidas sobre o tema nas teorias de Ernst Gombrich, Nelson Goodman, e Richard Wollheim. Procura evidenciar que, no panorama conceitual desses autores, é possível encontrar subsídios para o desenvolvimento de uma teoria da representação pictórica que suponha a dualidade entre a consciência da forma material e a consciência do conteúdo da representação de modo compatível com o tratamento do conceito em termos estruturais. O desenvolvimento do tema em Gombrich explica porque Wollheim desenvolve uma teoria da dualidade, e a hipótese interpretativa exposta no capítulo sobre o tema em Goodman visa a mostrar que uma abordagem estrutural da representação como sistema simbólico não implica em um convencionalismo estrito, na medida em que a percepção de semelhanças em um quadro relativo a aspectos estabelecidos comparativamente entre os objetos da representação e a própria representação é importante para o entendimento das imagens, de sua interpretação em um quadro aberto a convencionalizações que não sejam estabelecidas arbitrariamente, mas que atendam a uma linha de desenvolvimento compatível com o princípio de definição estabelecido pela prática artística. / This study deals with the issue of depiction in the context of artistic representation and focuses in the basic concepts developed on the subject by Ernst Gombrich, Nelson Goodman e Richard Wollheim. It focuses on the search for evidence in the conceptual framework of these authors for the support for the development of a theory of depiction that assumes twofoldness in a way that is compatible with the treatment of the concept in structural terms. Some specific drawbacks in relation to aspects of Gombrich's theory sets the ground for the explanation why Wollheim develops a twofoldness theory of depiction, and the interpretative hypothesis offered on this topic in relation to Goodman's theory aims to show that a structural approach of depiction as a symbolic system does not entail a strict or full blown conventionalism, insofar as the perception of similarities in relation to aspects in the comparison between the objects of representation and representations themselves are important for establishing the understanding of images, in an open framework of conventionalization that are no to be set arbitrarily, but that are compatible with the development with a principle of definition established by the artistic practice.

Die Promotionsarbeit untersucht ca. 600 Stücke aus der Zeit von den ersten Vorläufern des Sturm und Drang bis zur Märzrevolution auf die Darstellung und die dramaturgische Funktion des Todes. Nachdem sie zunächst klärt, auf welche Weise der Tod dem Publikum bzw. dem Leser vermittelt wird, folgt eine Untersuchung im Hinblick auf vier verschiedene Aspekte: Struktur, Sprechakte, Szenenbilder und Figuren. Dabei werden unter anderem der Einfluss der Position des Todes im Stück auf dessen Darstellung geklärt, die typischen Merkmale des Sterbemonologs erläutert, das Arrangieren von Leichen im Szenenbild beschrieben und das Verhältnis des Todes von Haupt- und Nebenfiguren untersucht. In einem abschließenden Teil werden die einzelnen Ergebnisse zu einer Dramaturgie des Sterbens verknüpft und deren Leitlinien herausgearbeitet. / The dissertation examines about 600 plays from the time of the first precursors of the Sturm und Drang up to the March Revolution on the depiction and dramaturgical function of death. After first clarifying the way in which death is conveyed to the public or the reader, an investigation follows with regard to four different aspects: structure, speech acts, scene images and characters. Among other things, it clarifies the influence of the position of death in the play on its representation, explains the typical features of the death monologue, describes the arrangement of corpses in the scene and examines the relationship between the death of main and minor characters. In a concluding part, the individual results are linked to a dramaturgy of dying and its guidelines are explained.