Recent calls in education have emphasized the critical need for curricula in the sciences to support student development of the general and disciplinary-specific practices that are relevant to modern scientific research and careers, as well as foundational scientific knowledge that reflects recent advances. In this regard, the life sciences, including biochemistry, have been under pressure to develop curricula that reflect current research knowledge and practices, and that develop student competence in areas such as experimentation and visualization. In contrast to these calls, biochemistry textbooks, and instruction based on them, seldom discuss how disciplinary knowledge is combined with experimental work or other disciplinary resources to investigate and communicate about biochemical phenomena. This is of great concern given that graduates entering life science careers must be able to reason with relevant disciplinary knowledge, utilize experimental research methods, and navigate data representations in order to solve research problems. It is therefore crucial for biochemistry instruction to expose students to the ways in which expert scientists navigate and reason with disciplinary resources in cutting-edge scientific research on topics such as protein folding and dynamics, the focus of this project. Thus, this dissertation aims to fill a gap in our understanding of how expert research scientists explain protein-folding and dynamics research, and how that research knowledge can be used to inform the development of instructional materials in this crucially important area of biochemistry. To address this goal, we explore three overarching research questions: How can we model experts’ explanations of their research related to protein folding and dynamics? (RQ1); How do experts use representations to explain their protein-folding and dynamics research? (RQ2); and How can we use expert research to inform the design and implementation of instructional materials aimed at developing biochemistry students’ understanding of protein-folding and dynamics? (RQ3). To address these research questions, we first collected and analyzed interview data from four experts to explore the nature of their research explanations. This data was used to develop a model (i.e. the MAtCH model) of how experts integrate theoretical knowledge with their research context, methods, and analogies when explaining how phenomena operate (RQ1). In doing so, we also established how the experts use and combine explanatory models depending on the phenomena discussed and their explanatory aims, as well as how they explain thermodynamic and kinetic concepts relevant to protein folding in ways that align with their experimental research methods. We then examined selected representations from the expert interviews to explore how experts use language and representations to create meaning when explaining their research (RQ2). In comparing these to representations from biochemistry textbooks, analysis of the data indicated that textbooks generally explain ‘what is known’ but seldom explain ‘how it is known,’ whereas the experts use a combination of language, multiple representations, and gestures to explain how experimental research methods can provide evidence for phenomena. From this analysis, suggestions were made regarding the design of instructional materials to support discussion of experimental research methods and student interpretation of representations in classroom activities. In the final study, these suggestions were used in combination with additional analysis of expert research to inform the development anticipated learning outcomes (ALOs) and the design of instructional materials aimed at developing biochemistry students’ understanding of protein folding and dynamics (RQ3). The materials focus on the use of hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) to study changes in protein structure due to denaturation and interactions with other molecules. The instructional materials were piloted in an undergraduate biochemistry course for the health sciences, and the nature of students’ understandings were explored. Our findings suggest that research practice – including research context, experimental methods, and representations – influences reasoning and explanation, providing additional evidence of the importance of developing discursive literacy in science students. To that end, a major implication of this work is that student knowledge of experimentation and representation may be a critical component of developing functional scientific understanding. Each of the studies contained in this dissertation therefore suggests ways in which practitioners may use our findings to modify instruction and instructional materials so that they are more aligned with expert practices. In order to teach students how scientific research underpins factual knowledge in biochemistry, future research should continue to explore experts’ use of disciplinary resources and ways of thinking in order to inform teaching and learning strategies and materials that can support the development of students’ disciplinary literacy.

The overall purpose of this licentiate thesis is to shed light on how reading is constructed in different year 1 school subjects. The focus of the study is reading and how teachers create conditions for students to understand text via text conversations and via textbook texts used in Mathematics, Swedish and Technology. The study aims to shed light on reading from a disciplinary literacy perspective.  The study is conducted in two sub-studies. In the first sub-study three lessons in year 1 are analyzed in terms of how reading is constructed via the following research questions: 1) How are the students invited into the text and text conversations through the teacher’s questions? 2) What everyday language, school language and subject-specific words and concepts do the students encounter in the text conversations? The second sub-study analyzes text sections from ten textbook texts with associated written questions: 1) What ways of using texts are encouraged by the questions in the text-book texts? 2) What everyday language, school language and subject-specific words and concepts can be identified in the textbook texts? The analyzes are based on an adapted text mobility model (Folkeryd et al., 2006; Liberg et al., 2010; Liberg et al., 2012), adaptations of PIRLS processes of comprehension (PIRLS 2016; Mullis & Martin, 2017) and adaptations of Lindberg’s (2007) categorization of words and concepts in everyday, school language and subject-specific vocabulary.  The results show that the teachers create conditions for text comprehension by initiating text conversations in whole groups and in pairs where information in texts is identified, words and concepts are defined, the texts are interpreted and more information is added to the texts. Based on the textbook texts, conditions for reading are created via the texts’ everyday language use and when subject-specific words and concepts occur, via the teacher’s alternating use of everyday and subject-specific words and concepts and through repetitions of the subject-specific ones. The teachers and the textbooks create different conditions for text comprehension in different subjects. In Mathematics the text is read carefully and repeatedly to identify information before calculation and finding the correct solution. In Swedish the text is read to be interpreted. In Technology the purpose of reading is to convey facts and innovative technology.

Den här studien tar sin utgångspunkt i en av de förändringar som införandet av läroplanen 2011 innebar, nämligen att mellanstadieelever ska ges möjlighet att utveckla sin förmåga att föra historiska resonemang. Syftet är att bidra med kunskap om relationen mellan lärares planering för och mellanstadieelevers utveckling av historiskt resonerande och ämneslitteracitet. Genom deltagande observation följdes två lärare när de planerade arbetsområdet medeltiden och när lektionerna genomfördes i en klassi årskurs 5. Det empiriska materialet består av ljudupptagningar och fältanteckningar från planeringstillfällen, helklasslektioner, grupparbeten och elevtexter. Epistemologiskt utgår studien från antagandet att kunskap är socialt situerad, vilket är gemensamt för de teorier som används. Det historiska resonerandet sker i ett socialt sammanhang och ställer krav både på förmågan till historiskt tänkande och på förmågan att uttrycka sig i historia. I studien kombineras därför historiedidaktiska teorier om historiskt tänkande och resonerande med historiespecifik litteracitet. Resultatet visar att eleverna kan föra enkla former av historiska resonemang. Uppgifterna och den stöttning eleverna erbjuds i undervisningen är de redskap med vars hjälp de ges möjligheter att utveckla denna förmåga och att utveckla historiespecifik litteracitet. Uppgifterna i studien domineras av att vara öppna och manar eleverna till att vara aktiva och att samarbeta, men de organiserande begreppen och resonemangsformerna är ofta implicita. Den planerade stöttningen karaktäriseras av att gå från gemensamt arbete med uppgifter i helklass, till i smågrupper och avslutningsvis att genomföra dem individuellt. Eleverna ges med andra ord rika tillfällen till interaktion vilket är ett viktigt stöd i att utveckla det historiska resonerandet, däremot skulle de organiserande begreppen och det historiespecifika skrivandet kunna explicitgöras i större utsträckning. Det nära samarbetet i studien mellan lärarna och forskaren gör att studien kan vara en del i att fylla gapet mellan teori och praktik och mellanrummet mellan akademi och skola. Studien bidrar dessutom till den vetenskapliga grunden för mellanstadiets historieundervisning. / This study is based on one of the changes introduced by the Swedish curriculum in 2011, namely that middle school students should be given the opportunity to develop their ability to reason historically. The overall purpose of the study is to contribute knowledge about the relationship between teachers’ planning for and middle school students’ development of historical reasoning and disciplinary literacy with examples from a subject area about Swedish Middle Ages. The study examines the opportunities that students in grade 5 are offered to develop the ability to reason historically and to develop disciplinary literacy in history teaching. Epistemologically, the study is based on the assumption that knowledge is socially situated, which is common to the theories used. Historical reasoning takes place in a social context and demands both the ability to think historically and the ability to express oneself in history. The study therefore combines history didactic theories about historical thinking and reasoning with history-specific literacy. The research questions originate from problems and difficulties that history teachers in middle school experience in their teaching. To get answers to these questions, the practice-based research approach Educational design research has been used. Through participant observation, two teachers were followed in the planning and implementation of history teaching in a class in grade 5 for 12 weeks. The empirical material consists of audio recordings and field notes from planning sessions and whole class lessons, audio recordings of group works and collection of student texts, both individual and collective. The licentiate thesis consists of two peer-reviewed articles, both published, and a commentary: Article 1 sheds light on middle school teachers’ conceptions of what historical reasoning entails specifically in writing and how teachers plan their lessons based on this. Seven planning sessions and one concluding conversation were followed through participant observation. A phenomenographic and a thematic analysis was made to answer the research questions. The results show that the teachers conceive of written reasoning in history as a) understanding the historical content, b) the active use of content concepts, c) shifting between time and space perspectives and d) perceiving text qualities. The results also show that teaching, according to the teachers, needs to include the use of teaching materials, be visually supportive, collaborative, reflective and attentive to text structure and linguistic patterns. Article 2 contributes knowledge about the opportunities that history teaching offers 5th grade students regarding historical reasoning, focusing on both historical thinking and history-specific literacy. The empirical material was collected during 15 lessons and analysed based on a model of historical reasoning and on theory of history-specific texts. The analysis is supported by a grammatical focus on temporality and causality. The result shows that middle school students use simple text activities such as retelling in historical reasoning about continuity and change. To a lesser extent, more complex textual activities, such as explanation and argumentation, which are important for historical reasoning about causes and consequences. However, oral processing of historical material offers opportunities to try more complex forms of historical reasoning and text activities. In the commentary the articles are related to each other through a synthesising analysis. The result of this analysis shows that middle school students are able to engage in simple forms of historical reasoning. The tasks and the scaffolding offered to students in the classroom are the tools that enable them to develop this ability and to develop history-specific literacy. The tasks in the study are predominantly open-ended and encourage students to be active and collaborative, but the organising concepts and forms of reasoning are often implicit. The planned scaffolding is characterised by moving from joint work on tasks in whole class, to small groups and finally to individual work. In other words, students are given ample opportunities for interaction, which is an important scaffolding in developing historical reasoning, but the organising concepts and history-specific writing could be made more explicit. One of the reasons why this is not already done may be that middle school teachers are often qualified in several subjects and thus may not have acquired sufficient knowledge of history, history didactics, and disciplinary literacy during their university education. In addition, the design of the history syllabus seems to have been influenced by history didactic research that has been carried out mainly in relation to older students. This also means that the middle school teachers do not have much scientific research to refer to, which means that they try out by themselves. With this study, I want to contribute to filling the research gap in Swedish context when it comes to historical reasoning in the middle school.

At the high school level teachers are often departmentalized by their content area and do not teach subjects outside of their specialties. Common Core State Standards (CCSS) introduced literacy standards across the curriculum requiring reading and writing instruction in all courses. The adoption not only affected traditional literacy teachers but also science, math, social studies, and career and technical education teachers who may have had little or no training or experience in teaching literacy to adolescents. These teachers, because of little training or experience in teaching literacy, may feel unprepared for the CCSS literacy shifts or inadequate in delivering literacy instruction. This study was designed to explore teacher perceived self-efficacy after the implementation of new literacy standards in Tennessee. The purpose of this study was to evaluate high school teachers’ perceptions with regard to self-efficacy and literacy instruction across the curriculum. Data were collected through online, voluntary surveys using Likert scaling and one open-ended response question. The sample included Tennessee high school teachers from 3 counties in Tennessee First Core Region 1 high schools who had taught math, science, social studies, career and technical education, or ELA. This study found no significant difference based on self-efficacy and content area, level of teaching experience, or gender. There was also no significant difference based on literacy efficacy and level of teaching experience or gender. There was a significant difference based on literacy efficacy and content area. ELA teachers were more significantly confident in teaching literacy than nonELA teachers.

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The aim of conducting the following research is to observe how teachers in upper secondary school create conditions for developing disciplinary literacy in social science. Additionally, the aim is to examine how teachers reflect upon their practices regarding pupils’ development of disciplinary literacy. In order to carry out the aim of the research overview, two research questions were constructed. The theoretical foundation of the research consists of Vygotsky’s socio-cultural perspective, which includes the concepts mediation, appropriation, scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development. Furthermore, Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning Objectives was used in order to provide a cognitive perspective. Research on disciplinary literacy, mainly that of Shanahan and Shanahan, combined with social science research formed an additional framework for analysis. The data consists of both qualitative, semi-structured interviews with two social science teachers and collected teaching material. Consequently, a qualitative content analysis was conducted using the aforementioned theoretical framework. Results show that teachers consider perspective-taking an essential ability in social science and that the development of disciplinary literacy is a linear progression from simpler, factual concepts to complex, analytical concepts. Further, social science is characterized by its large content-specific vocabulary. In addition, teachers experience that pupils struggle with scientific reading and writing, which are skills that are viewed as essential. The chosen didactic methods of the teachers include authentic texts and examples, and content-specific vocabulary was viewed as a key component for developing disciplinary literacy. With the zone of proximal development in mind, the teachers consciously challenge the students with more complex material.Finally, the implications of the results are discussed in relation to previous research, the theoretical background and the Swedish curricula for upper secondary school. Lastly, suggestions for future research are discussed.

Ämnesspråk förekommer i alla skolämnen och den här studien motiveras av att det finns lite forskning om ämnesspråk i grundskolans undervisning och framför allt i svenskämnet. Studiens syfte är att bidra med kunskap om hur lärare använder och förklarar grammatiska begrepp i undervisningen. Frågorna besvaras med stöd av intervjuer med lärare i årskurs 4–6 om vilka grammatiska begrepp de säger sig använda och hur de förklarar dem. Den teoretiska utgångspunkten grundar sig i en språkpyramid (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008, s. 44) som visar språkutveckling i tre steg: basic literacy, intermediate literacy och disciplinary literacy, vilka vi benämner som ämnesspråk, skolspråk och vardagsspråk. Lärarsvaren kategoriseras sedan in i de olika stegen i pyramiden. Studien visar att lärarna introducerar traditionella grammatiska termer för satsdelar, ordklasser och böjningssystem. Det framkommer också att lärarna förklarar dem med stöd av både skolspråk och vardagsspråk.

Every citizen has the right to be equipped with scientific literacy to understand and make informed decisions within the discipline of science. Educators can utilize core science teaching practices (CSTPs) to develop scientific literacy. In response, this study identified the CSTPs utilized by preservice elementary teachers (PSETs) to develop scientific literacy during their spring 2022 student teaching semester. Furthermore, this study identified contextual constructs that led to the utilization of the CSTPs to develop scientific literacy. The study used a qualitative exploratory case study using semi-structured interviews as the primary data. Surveys and artifacts were used as supporting secondary data. The identification of CSTPs and their contextual constructs were conducted using inductive content analysis. Afterward, the identified CSTPs and their contextual constructs were deconstructed, interpreted, and synthesized through the critical theoretical framework of disciplinary literacy. Relationships, time, school structure, and community were contextual constructs that enabled and disabled PSETs' utilization of CSTPs to develop scientific literacy. The contextual constructs are represented using the Framework to Develop Scientific Literacy (FDSL). The FDSL contain contextual constructs that enabled PSETs to utilize CSTPs through the sharing of power between the PSET and their cooperating teacher, school district, community, or teacher education programs. In contrast, contextual constructs that disabled PSETs include denying of power that negatively impacted the utilization of CSTPs to develop scientific literacy. The findings of the study call for teacher education programs to include contextual constructs as elements that impact PSETs' student teaching experiences to navigate power dynamics in authentic school settings. By identifying and using constructs as represented in the FDSL, teacher education programs can support PSETs' utilization of CSTPs to develop scientific literacy. In addition, this study calls for a reframing of power relationships between teacher education programs and their partnering school districts. By revealing the complex contextual nature of the PSETs' student teaching experiences, this study seeks to initiate discussion on how teacher education programs can support the practice of PSETs as they educate the next generation of scientifically literate citizens.

This project study addressed the lack of inclusion of discipline literacy pedagogy in secondary classrooms in a rural school district in eastern North Carolina. Discipline literacy practices are recommended in the Common Core Standards for History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects. The district had implemented content area reading strategies across content areas, yet no significant progress in secondary students' reading abilities had been demonstrated in statewide or national assessments. The conceptual framework that drove this study was disciplinary literacy, founded by the literacy research of Shanahan, Shanahan, and Zygouris-Coe. Within a qualitative case study method, this investigation of 8 secondary science teachers' experiences teaching literacy during content instruction focused on practices of embedding science-specific reading strategies into lessons and factors that influence teachers' decisions to participate in professional development to advance their learning of discipline-specific literacy methods. Data were collected and triangulated using a focus group and 8 individual interviews. Data from both methods were analyzed into codes and categories that developed into emergent themes. Findings from the focus group and individual interviews revealed that the science teachers possessed limited knowledge of science-specific reading strategies; used random, general literacy practices; and had completed inadequate professional development on science-related topics. Positive change may occur if district leaders support teachers in expanding their knowledge and application of discipline literacy strategies through participation in discipline literacy-focused professional development. The study may provide educators and researchers a deeper understanding of disciplinary literacy and increase research on the topic.

This project study addressed the lack of inclusion of discipline literacy pedagogy in secondary classrooms in a rural school district in eastern North Carolina. Discipline literacy practices are recommended in the Common Core Standards for History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects. The district had implemented content area reading strategies across content areas, yet no significant progress in secondary students' reading abilities had been demonstrated in statewide or national assessments. The conceptual framework that drove this study was disciplinary literacy, founded by the literacy research of Shanahan, Shanahan, and Zygouris-Coe. Within a qualitative case study method, this investigation of 8 secondary science teachers' experiences teaching literacy during content instruction focused on practices of embedding science-specific reading strategies into lessons and factors that influence teachers' decisions to participate in professional development to advance their learning of discipline-specific literacy methods. Data were collected and triangulated using a focus group and 8 individual interviews. Data from both methods were analyzed into codes and categories that developed into emergent themes. Findings from the focus group and individual interviews revealed that the science teachers possessed limited knowledge of science-specific reading strategies; used random, general literacy practices; and had completed inadequate professional development on science-related topics. Positive change may occur if district leaders support teachers in expanding their knowledge and application of discipline literacy strategies through participation in discipline literacy-focused professional development. The study may provide educators and researchers a deeper understanding of disciplinary literacy and increase research on the topic.