The energy industry is facing serious pressure to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The purpose of this study was to investigate if there is a statistically significant correlation between certain institutional factors and type of environmental strategy employed by companies in the energy industry. The academic foundation upon which strategy was studied is Institutional Theory. Institutional theory is embedded in the school of sociology and prescribes that behaviour is a function of social norms and routines. At the organisational level, this translates to a high degree of interdependency between organisations and the environment which they operate in. The institutional factors selected for analysis in this study were economic growth, gross domestic product per capita, unemployment, poverty, income inequality, human development index, and national competitiveness. The environmental strategy of energy companies was categorised in two broad measures namely; carbon dioxide reduction and carbon independence. The study has found that there is no significant correlation between any of the institutional factors and combination of carbon reduction and independence strategies. However, an important finding is that the statistical significance of the bi-variate regression analysis increased considerably when national competitiveness was used as an explanatory variable of strategy.From this, it is concluded that it is critical to understand which institutional factors are expected to be determinants of strategy in the energy industry. More importantly, it is concluded that as energy is a primary requirement for national competitiveness, strategy in the energy industry is determined by a combination of factors and not just a single variable. This is an important distinction which must be clear in the mind of both policy makers and business leaders in the energy industry especially those who are seeking to expand into new markets. Copyright / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / unrestricted

Humanity is more civilized more cannot live without energy, but along with its heavier depending on the tradition fossil energy, also facing the resources exhausting and the environmental protection subject, the enhancement development of¡§renewable energy resources¡¨and¡§green energy resources¡¨has become the trend of global pursued. From the global climate vicissitude conference, proposed especially reduces the greenhouse gas emissions, every countries racks one's brains all, pondered how to reduce degree of dependency of the fossil energy and diversify the energy resources. Since developing new energy for future is an inevitably tendency, then how to position and how to plan the new energy strategy turns into the most important topic for each international energy company. This study namely takes A-Company as an example, discusses new energy strategy of the main global international energy company. This study aims at each advanced countries and the main international energy company first the new energy strategy, carries on the preliminary comparison and the analysis, then from competitive advantage theories and SWOT analysis, five strength analyses, product life cycle, diamond model, discusses the new energy strategy for A-Company .In this study case, To improve energy efficency, To manage emissions and To diversify the energy resources are the best new energy strategy, so that it can be well competitive advantaged . This study also suggests A-Company with some feasible planning actions to cope with the future energy developing scenario .

本文從中日雙方能源安全環境出發，首先探討中共能源外交戰略的背景因素和佈局策略，接著從日本因素介入入中共實行戰略的過程，觀察日本所造成的影響，最後再以中共對於日本的政策回應探討雙方這一連串的互動過程，其所蘊藏的意涵為何，並探討雙方解決能源問題的思維與方式之可能形式。 1993年中國大陸由石油淨出口國轉為石油淨進口國起，原油進口依存度逐年快速增長，中共官方因此必須向外尋找更加穩定及更多樣化的供應管道，以因應國內經濟發展需要。故為了維護本身的資源安全，「能源外交戰略」於90年代中期開始迅速實施，這包含了對內的能源戰略以及對外的資源外交、軍事合作等兩方面行動。 日本長期為世界第二大石油消費國（在2004年才被中國大陸超越），和中國大陸一樣對於海外時有著高度的依賴，甚至猶有過之(日本國內生產石油僅能供應總需求量0.2%)，並且因為其經濟實力所支撐的外交能力和軍事能力，是中國大陸在亞洲當中經濟實力最強大的競爭對手，因此日本對於中共在亞洲區域內能源外交的成敗影響能力，自然也就遠超過其他鄰國。於是日本基於能源地緣政治考量，在陸上管線和東海油氣田兩方面著手介入了中共能源外交戰略，造成了兩者的相互競爭，而中共用阻止日本「入常」和派遣艦隊巡邏和潛艇偵察的政策回應，對中日雙方帶來的是更進一步的矛盾。 雙方在1970年代曾有過短暫的石油合作先例，但在目前的權力結構以及難以克服的歷史恩怨等兩大難題影響下，雙方的競爭面大於合作面，這將不利於區域的和平穩定並反而增加整個區域維護能源安全成本的上升，故唯有雙方跳脫出成見，才能冷靜的共同解決能源問題，如此才符合區域整體利益。

中國的崛起如同現實主義對於國家間衝突的解釋，亦即國際間對於中國威脅的廣泛論述，不論其威脅是否真實存在，其對國際間的影響已是不可否認的事實。1993年中國成為石油淨進口國，這是自1963年以來中國首次出現的石油赤字，宣示了中國石油供應自給自足局面的結束，也開啟了中國能源政策對外擴張的開始。 中國正由計劃經濟朝向其所謂的社會主義市場經濟轉型，對於在2050年達到中等發達國家水平的目標而言，現階段的發展將是一個重要的轉折。中國的經濟發展計畫，預約了對於石油的消費，其能源消費結構的錯置與供應來源的單一性以及潛在的脆弱性，對於中國的能源安全來說無疑是一個潛在的負面因素。尤其是當增加石油進口成為解決中國能源安全矛盾的必要路徑時，對外的能源政策將是確保中國能源安全是否穩定的關鍵點。 國家為了能源的安全獲得確保，必然發展對內保護對外擴張的能源政策，尤其是仰類進口能源的國家，其對外的能源政策將更具侵略性。中國的能源安全戰略圍繞在多元化為中心的概念展開，包括能源的來源、種類、路線以及運輸與獲得方式的多元化。對內，中國透過多元管道強化本身的能源安全鏈，避免對於進口石油產生過度依賴。對外，中國領導階層積極的出訪，綜合外交的力量推展「能源外交」，全方位的在全球佈局，突破大國對中國軟性的圍堵，除了獲得實質的石油收益外，也開啟了中國外交的新趨向。 / China rises abruptly symbolizes the explanation of realism is on a collision between the countries. Meanwhile the world make a popular discussion about they were threatened by China. Whatever it exist or inexistence, but it definitely influence the whole world. Until 1993 China became the petroleum importer that caused first deficit in China since 1963. It announced to end in self-contained petroleum and commence opening the extensive of energy resources policy. The China is going to plan the economics that go forward and change into socialist marketing. For the 2050, they’ll expect to achieve the goal of middle-development country, and a turning point in the developing at this most important stage now. In their economics- development planning which bespeak the petrol expense is error of structures of resources expense, single-supply source and potential frailty. It was without doubt that potential negative factors for safety of energy resources of China. When they increase to import the petroleum, it becomes to solve the safety of energy resources was confusing with necessary method. An external policy of energy resources will ensure China to connect the safety of energy resources if it's stable. They need safety of energy resources was assured so that they must develop the policies are internal protection and external extension. Especially the country depend on the resources imported, the external policy will more invasion. The safe policies of resources are around the conception of diversity are origin, kinds, channels, transportation and so on. For domestic policies, China use the diverse channels to strong the energy in Security and avoid to over rely on the imported petroleum. For foreign policies, China leaderships are highly active to make an official visit and diplomatic power combined to promote the “Energy diplomacy”. They operated the overall strategy of global and broke through soft containment of super state to them. Therefore China not only gains much benefit of petroleum virtually but opens the new tending of diplomacy.

經濟是習近平發展「中國夢」不可或缺的重要支柱，中國在經濟高速發展下，能源消耗量持續激增，缺乏能源將對經濟與社會發展產生負面影響，對外依存度日益擴大，增加石油及天然氣進口，是解決中國能源短缺問題的主要方法。 就中國能源安全而言，外部面臨海外能源來源受周邊地緣政治影響，內部存在能源結構上過度依賴煤炭等問題，而鄰接中國的中亞地區為新興能源中心，與中亞的能源合作能夠減少能源輸入風險、改善能源結構，有助中國克服能源安全的窘境。中亞的豐富能源不僅受到周邊大國的覬覦，也使中亞國家內部生成尋租與貪腐、制度弱化、資金錯配、阻礙長期發展等資源詛咒現象。本論文透過觀察中國與中亞間雙邊貿易、直接投資與大型投資與合約的變化，從國際政治經濟學的視角，分析獲得中國正運用經濟資源在中亞發揮政治影響力，逐步實踐具體的能源戰略。中國藉地緣經濟進入中亞，掌握經濟互補的競爭優勢，以提供中亞國家發展所需資金與基礎建設，並排除區域發展障礙，增進彼此能源合作的機會，達成鞏固中國能源安全的戰略目的。 / A strong economy is the rock of XI Jingpi’s “Chinese Dream”; however, because of the dramatically increasing energy consumption with rapid economic growth, energy deficiency leads to negative economic and societal effects in China. Therefore, in light of aggravated overdependence on energy imports, the major solution for the shortage would be searching for more energy accesses, especially for oil and natural gas. China faces several energy security problems. For example, domestically, China heavily depends on coal as thermal resources. Externally, energy accesses significantly are affected by geopolitics. However, Central Asia, a new but major center of natural resources, not just a neighbor of China, but also a crucial partner in energy cooperation capable of reducing China’s risks of importing resources from other routes, changing Chinese energy structure at present, and finally helping China overcomes the problem of energy security. Abundant resources is not just a blessing making other countries jealous, resources also becomes a curse resulting from rent-seeking, corruption, financial dislocation, etc. in Central Asian countries, and these issues hinder the long-term development in the region. From the international political economy perspective, I observe the change of bilateral trade, foreign direct investment, and major investment contracts between China and Central Asian countries to analyze if China gradually practices its energy strategy through imposing political influence in Central Asia via economic leverages. I find that China encourages energy cooperation with Central Asian countries by taking the advantage of geography and financing investment of infrastructure which both creates a promising environment of development.

It is known that the heating and cooling market constitutes a large part of energy market across Europe and that the domestic and non-domestic buildings have together the largest share of energy demand. The aim of the European climate goals is to reduce the use of fossil fuel based systems and the allowance of energy demand. These have been striving reasons to increase efficiency and reduce GHG emissions on energy systems for buildings. The climate goals and regulations mentioned in this study implicates that European countries strives towards renewable sources in the heating sector, and encouraging heating networks with renewable sources. E.ON has developed a new low temperature district heating and cooling system called EctogridTM, a heat network integrated with heat pumps and cooling machines to supply energy. This thesis will thoroughly describe this heating and cooling system, called EctogridTM, and its constitutive components. The aim of this study is to determine whether the energy markets in Germany and United Kingdom are ready for an introduction of EctogridTM, and exploit existing and upcoming obstacles. To determine this, two research questions are answered through literature review, research and a case analysis. The first research question is evaluating the energy market in Europe with a focus on the heating demand in Germany and United Kingdom where fossil fuels are the dominating fuel. Second research question is comparing EctogridTM with a 4th generation district  heating  network, 4GDHn, in costs to evaluate the competitiveness with existing energy systems on the market. It is concluded that obstacles exist, how big they are for EctogridTM differs from country to country. How developed and flexible the infrastructure is, what energy sources and technologies are commonly used for heating purposes, building insulation, energy prices and regulations are factors that more or less variates from country to country and decides the severity of the feasible imposed obstacles. Germany and United Kingdom mostly uses decentralized gas boilers for the building heating demand, people often reasons them to have cheap running cost due to the energy prices. This study shows that that despite the big difference in energy price between gas and electricity for a household, heat pumps with a minimum COP of 3.5 will have lower running costs  than traditional gas boilers. Since EctogridTM uses heat pumps with a COP between 4-5, in optimal conditions, it is quite competitive in running cost to gas boilers. The obstacle here lies in most buildings being old and insufficient insulated for an EctogridTM system and the investment costs often being more expensive compared to gas boilers. Installing a heat pump or a gas boiler shows that the CO2 emissions per kWh of useful heat (kg CO2/kWh) are 0.31 for a gas boiler and 0.16 for an AHP which means a decrease in emissions of around 50% per useful kWh heat. The case study compared 4GDHn with an EctogridTM solution as an energy system. The case study consisted of 3 buildings with a heating and cooling need in a newly built area in Germany and United Kingdom. The study showed that an EctogridTM solution was more expensive for the customers but more profitable for producers when comparisons were made with regards to the current energy prices and estimations. However, a larger area with a much higher energy demand needs to be considered to see the real competitiveness of EctogridTM and electrified solution. A larger cooling demand will benefit EctogridTM  while reducing the profits of a 4GDHn. The uncertainty of the acquired data, since no pilot project exists yet, makes it hard to draw a certain conclusion whether it is a more competitive energy system than a 4GDHn and other current low carbon heating systems. / Värme- och kylbehovet utgör en stor del av energisektorn i Europa, där kommersiella och icke- kommersiella byggnaderna tillsammans står för den största andelen av energibehovet i energimarknaden. Målet med Europas klimatmål är bland annat att minska användningen av fossila bränslen samt energibehovet. Klimatpåverkan från värme- och kylsystem i byggnadssektorn har varit omfattande och klimatmålen motiverar ägarna av energisystemen att bli mer energi effektiva och minska deras växthusemissioner. Klimatmål och bestämmelser som nämns i denna rapport visar att länderna i Europa strävar efter att främja förnybara källor i värmesektorn, där värmenätverk är ofta nämnd.E.ON har utvecklat ett låg temperaturs nätverk som kallas för EctogridTM, där nätverket är integrerat med värmepumpar och kylmaskiner för att leverera energi. Det här arbetet kommer noggrant att beskriva EctogridTM och dess djupgående komponenter.Syftet med denna studie är att avgöra om energimarknaden i Tyskland och Storbritannien är redo för en implementering av EctogridTM, och upplysa om de existerande samt framtida hindren. För att svara på detta är två nyckelfrågor framtagna och besvarade genom litteraturstudie, forskning och en fallstudie.Första nyckelfrågan utvärderar energimarknaden i Europa med fokus i Tyskland och Storbritanniens värmebehov där användingen av fossila bränslen utgör större delen av marknaden. Andra nyckelfrågan jämför kostnaderna mellan EctogridTM  och 4:e generationens fjärrvärmenätverk, detta för att ta veta hur konkurrenskraftig EctogridTM är gentemot nuvarande och snarliknande energisystem i marknaden. Studien visar att hinder existerar när EctogridTM introduceras till marknaden, hur stora dom är kan variera mellan olika länder. Hur utvecklat och flexibelt infrastrukturen är, vilken energikälla samt teknologi som vanligtvis används för komfortvärmen, byggnadsisolering, energipriser och bestämmelser är faktorer som mer eller mindre varierar mellan länderna och  bestämmer storheten på hindret/n. Tyskland och Storbritannien använder mestadels lokala gaspannor för värmebehovet i byggnader. Ofta associeras gaspannor med låga driftkostnader på grund av energipriserna. Den här studien visar att värmepumpar med en genomsnittlig COP som är minst 3.5 har lägre driftkostnader än traditionella gas pannor, trots den stora skillnaden mellan gas- och elpriset. Då EctogridTM använder värmepumpar som i drift skall ha en genomsnittlig COP på mellan 4-5, vid optimala förhållanden, är detta system konkurrenskraftigt gentemot lokala gaspannor. Hindret här ligger i att de flesta byggnader inte är tillräckligt bra isolerade och kan implementera EctogridTM då systemet opererar i för låga temperaturer, samt att investeringskostnaderna oftast är betydligt dyrare än ett system med gaspanna. Vid installation av en luftvärmepump eller gaspanna visar att CO2 emissionerna per kWh nyttig värme (kg CO2/kWh) är 0.31 för en gaspanna och 0.16 för luftvärmepumpen, vilket leder till en halvering av CO2 utsläpp. Den skapade fallstudien jämför 4:e generationens fjärrvärmenät med en EctogridTM lösning, där systemen ska förse tre nybyggda fastigheters värme- och kylbehov i ett nybyggnationsområde i Tyskland samt Storbritannien. Fallstudien visade att implementerandet av EctogridTM var dyrare för kunden men avkastningen för energibolagen var högre än 4:e generationens fjärrvärmenät, detta baserades på nuvarande energipriser samt prissättningen. Men det är rekommenderat att göra en jämförelse över ett större område med högre energibehov än i denna fallstudie för att få en mer verklig uppfattning. Ökad andel av kylbehov än i denna fallstudie är även något att se över då det ökar avkastningen för EctogridTM och förväntas öka effektiviteten avsevärt för systemet. Något som inte är lika fördelaktigt för 4:e generationens fjärrvärmenät. Det är svårt att ge helt tillförlitliga slutsatser och resultat då ett pilotprojekt på EctogridTM inte existerar ännu, det vill säga den data som har varit grunden för vår analys och resultat är inte bekräftad att vara helt korrekta. Vilket gör att man med säkerhet inte kan säga om EctogridTM är mer eller mindre konkurrenskraftig än 4:e generationens fjärrvärmesystem och andra befintliga lågemitterande värmesystem.

Climate change is no novelty – we witness its disastrous impact more and more by each day. Although we already started envisaging a future where the vitality of our societies is derived not from conventional fossil fuels, but from a sophisticated, clean, and steadfast energy source – the latest benchmarks tracked by leading global energy agencies show grim performance, thereby calling for an intervention. The exploration into Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs) could present a stable and likely journey towards this vision – offering a glimpse into a future where energy is not only abundant, but also conscientiously generated. SMRs are compact versions of traditional nuclear power plants, yet they bring additional advantages such as potential cost-effectiveness and adaptability to diverse locations and environments. These reactors promise to cater to our escalating energy demands while simultaneously upholding environmental integrity. However, as this research reveals, their implementation – particularly in Finland and Sweden – isn't without challenges. While SMRs offer potential benefits, the regulatory landscapes in both countries present formidable obstacles. Finland's regulatory body, known for its stringent oversight, ensures adherence to the highest safety standards. Yet, this rigor can sometimes be a double-edged sword – especially when navigating the dynamic realm of SMRs. In contrast, Sweden grapples with pronounced regulatory uncertainties and ambiguity, further complicated by historical public skepticism towards the nuclear sector. Safety perceptions in the nuclear industry often deviate towards feelings rather than quantifiable metrics. This underlines an ongoing debate: should we define an acceptable safety threshold or aim for absolute safety? Moreover, the intertwined nature of politics and large-scale nuclear projects necessitates well-considered, stable strategies to harness SMRs' potential. Focused on Finland and Sweden – countries with rich nuclear histories – this research offers a deep dive into the complex narrative of risks, opportunities, and strategic challenges surrounding SMRs in the Nordic context. It underscores the need for a nuanced approach that combines technological innovation with socio-political considerations.

Энергоэффективность в современных условиях становится одним из стратегических факторов успеха промышленных предприятий, внося вклад как в сокращение операционных издержек и рациональное использование всех источников энергии, так и в повышение экологических показателей производства. Основой энергоменеджмента на предприятии является разработка энергетической стратегии предприятия и построение на ее основе системы планирования, организации и контроля энергоэффективности. Включение в состав подобной стратегии подходов к управлению человеческим капиталом как совокупностью знаний, умений и навыков в области энергоэффективного производства, подкрепленных системой материальной и нематериальной мотивации, становится одной из приоритетных задач в области управления промышленным предприятием. Системный подход к разработке и внедрению технологий энергосбережения стал одним из ключевых направлений развития энергоменеджмента на промышленных предприятиях. В настоящее время на стратегическом уровне управления он осуществляется за счет ряда международных стандартов, которые носят рекомендательный характер. Очевидно, что на большинстве современных промышленных предприятий внедрены элементы энергетической политики, формализованы основные элементы бизнес-процессов, относящихся к энергоменеджменту. Однако необходимо достичь понимания, что функционирование системы энергоменеджмента невозможно без инновационного подхода, суть которого заключается в использовании внутренних интеллектуальных ресурсов для запуска механизмов активизации отдельных бизнес-процессов, направленных на энергосбережение. Инновационный подход является логичным продолжением системного подхода, и рассматривается нами как важнейшая предпосылка развития человеческого капитала, который бы способствовал внедрению уникальных технических и управленческих решений для повышения энергетической эффективности. Условия внедрения стратегического энергоменеджмента остаются уникальными для каждого отдельного предприятия, однако, как показывает практика, они всегда связаны с развитием человеческих ресурсов и формированием индивидуальной ответственности в области энергосбережения. Выработка энергетической политики и формирование системы управления энергопотреблением являются основами стратегического энергоменеджмента на промышленном предприятии. Однако, как показывает практика управления, подходы к реализации энергоменеджмента могут осуществляться в точки зрения различных стратегий, среди которых ключевую роль играют инвестиционные стратегии. Они определяют масштабы инвестирования в сфере энергосбережения и совершенствования системы энергосбережения в целом, позволяют определить перспективные направления инвестирования и задать стандарты инвестиционной привлекательности проектов по энергосбережению. В настоящей диссертации предлагается и обосновывается уникальная для отечественного опыта концепция формирования энергоэффективного человеческого капитала, которая позволит более эффективно внедрять на промышленных предприятиях принципы стратегического энергоменеджмента на всех уровнях. Предложен инновационный подход, который позволит запустить механизмы стратегического энергоменеджмента на практике с максимальной эффективностью посредством формирования и развития энергоэффективного человеческого капитала, а также классификация мероприятий в области энергоменеджмента, по уровню их инвестиционной привлекательности и масштабам влияния на всю производственную систему. На основе классификации предлагаются инвестиционные стратегии различного типа, выбор которых позволит сформировать портфель проектов в области повышения энергоэффективности на стратегическом уровне. Применение предлагаемого инструментария осуществлено на примере одного их крупных российских металлургических предприятий – ОАО «Уралэлектромедь». По результатам оценки инвестиционных мероприятий дан анализ возможных путей расширения портфеля энергоэффективных проектов на предприятии. / Contributing to a reduction of operating costs and efficient use of all energy sources and improving the environmental performance of production, energy efficiency in modern conditions became a strategic success factor of the industrial enterprises. The strategic underpinning for energy management of the company concerns the development of energy strategy and development of business processes based on planning, organization and control of energy efficiency. The inclusion of strategic approaches to the management of human capital as a basis of knowledge and skills in energy-efficient technologies, enforced by a system of material and non-material motivation, is one of the priorities in management. A systematic approach to the development of energy-saving technologies has become one of the key areas of energy management in industrial enterprises. Currently, at the strategic level of management it is carried out by a number of international standards, which are advisory in nature. It is obvious that in most modern industrial enterprises elements of energy policy are introduced and basic elements of business processes relating to energy management are formalized. However, we deduce that the functioning of the energy management system is not possible without an innovative approach, the essence of which is the use of internal intellectual resources to trigger activation of specific business processes aimed at energy conservation. The innovative approach is a logical continuation of a systematic approach, and is viewed as an essential prerequisite for the development of human capital, which would promote the introduction of unique technical and management solutions to improve energy efficiency. Terms and conditions of the strategic energy management implementation are unique to each company, but in practice they are always linked to the development of human resources and the formation of individual responsibility in the field of energy efficiency. Development of energy policy and the formation of energy management systems are the pillars of the strategic energy management at the industrial enterprise. However, in practice management approaches to the implementation of energy management can be implemented in terms of the different strategies, including the key role played by investment strategies. They define the scope of investment in energy efficiency and improving energy-saving system as a whole, allowing to determine promising areas of investment and to set standards for the investment attractiveness of energy saving projects. In this dissertation we propose a concept of energy efficient human capital, which will more effectively implement the principles of strategic energy management at all levels of industrial enterprises. It is proposes an innovative approach that will run on the mechanisms of strategic energy management practices as efficiently as possible through the formation and development of energy-efficient human capital. And we propose a classification of activities in the field of energy management, the level of their investment attractiveness and scale effects on the entire production system. Based on the classification proposed investment strategies of different types, the choice of which will develop a portfolio of projects in the field of energy efficiency at a strategic level. The application of the instruments carried by the example of one of the major Russian steel companies - "Uralelectromed." The assessment of investment activities is given analysis of possible ways to expand the portfolio of energy efficiency projects in the enterprise.

當二十一世紀時序進入全球化時代之後，在全球氣候變遷與石化燃料價格高漲的影響之下，世界各國為了保障本身經濟發展所需的能源，即在世界範圍內展開激烈的鬥爭，甚至因此而導致了嚴重衝突和戰爭。當今全球能源消費結構中，石化能源仍居主導地位，存量的有限與需求增長之間矛盾日益顯著，因此，能源短缺已成為國家經濟發展的巨大瓶頸，全球性的能源爭奪態勢愈演愈烈。隨著全球化時代的到來，大部分發展中國家(尤其是亞太地區)工業化和現代化的進程相對加速，面對世界能源的需求也不斷增加，中國大陸就是最典型的例子。 大陸的能源戰略和海外投資，通常都是一個足以為外界激烈辯論的主題(例如「中國能源威脅論」)。中國大陸緊鄰著中亞區域，蘊藏著豐富的石油和天然氣儲備量，在這個區域發揮高度的能源戰略，似乎是中國大陸最可能的重要手段，另一方面亦藉以減輕其對來自中東的能源供應的依賴，若能掌握該區，大陸就可以減少對中東油源供應的依賴，種種徵候都明確顯示大陸積極鞏固國土疆域與追求能源安全戰略的全般優勢。 / When the timing to enter the twenty-first century era of globalization, under the global climate change and the impact of rising fossil fuel prices, the international community in order to protect its own economic development needed energy that fierce struggle, and even lead to serious conflicts and wars . Today's global energy consumption structure, petrochemical and energy continued to hold a dominant position, the contradiction between the finite and the demand for stock grew increasingly significant, therefore, the energy shortage has become a huge bottleneck in socio-economic development, global energy muddied intensified. With the advent of the era of globalization, (especially in the Asia-Pacific region) industrialization and modernization process in most developing countries relative acceleration, facing the world's energy demands are increasing, China is the most typical example. China's overseas energy strategy and investments are usually sufficient for the outside world a hotly debated topic (such as "China energy threat"). China close to the Central Asian region, rich in oil and natural gas reserves in the region to play a highly energy strategy, China seems to be the most important means possible, on the other hand also so as to reduce its dependence on energy supplies from the Middle East , if we grasp this area, China can reduce its dependence on Middle East oil supply source, various incidents have clearly demonstrated China's active pursuit of the full consolidation of Land and territory advantages like energy security strategy.

本文要旨在回答中國大陸的能源戰略是如何形成，並探討此一戰略如何影響中國大陸的石油安全。本文主從歷史制度主義的觀點主張中國能源體制是決定中國的石油戰略最重要的因素。解釋中國的能源部門在經濟改革與國際化的內、外部環境下，產生制度變遷，進而形成不同時期的石油戰略。在回答中國大陸日益龐大的石油需求與進口石油依賴，使得政府制訂出提升能源使用效率、節約能源、能源多元化與確保海外石油供應 但由於中國為保護國有石油企業的壟斷角色，對於「迎進來」的市場進入條件設下許多條件限制，對外又採取積極的石油外交，使得國際社會對中國產生重商主義與保護主義的疑慮。 中國的能源部門自1980年以來已經歷幾個階段的改革，第一階段是從1982年至1987年，強調要計畫經濟為主、市場力量為輔的能源制度改革；第二階段是從1988至1992年，重點在於國有企業的改革，鼓勵國有企業集團化；第三階段是從1993至1997年，重點在政企分離，並把配置資源的基礎性職能轉移給市場；第四階段是從1998至2002年，重點在加強國有資產的監管與國有企業經營，並初步建立宏觀能源調控體系；第五階段則是自2003年以降，主要的改革目標在建立跨部門的能源協調機制與對外的競爭力。 本文但由於「漸進主義」式的制度變遷使得能源部門體制改革仍存在許多問題，諸如能源部門分散、能源監管部門眾多、國家安全思維與既得利益等，使得政府部門考量其能源安全時，政府干預仍多於市場思維，即便自改革開放以來國家能力已不斷衰退。但在能源辦與發改委能源局的人力有限以及能源部門缺乏效率的情形下，擁有龐大資源的三大國有石油企業（中石油、中石化、中海油）無疑「挾持」政府的決策，例如理論上中央政府可完全控制與審核國有企業的海外投資，但實際國有企業通常是在海外投案案定局後才通知發改委與國務院。中國的能源決策中的缺乏效率常來自於既得利益者的把持，而不願在整體的政治與經濟政策上肩負起更多的政策責任，例如中央政府與國企對於戰備儲油到底由誰出資的內部爭論。 未來中國的能源戰略會持續採取「迎進來、走出去」的方向；近年來政府試圖改革其能源決策程序，透過建立跨部會的決策協調機制試圖重奪能源決策的主導性，因此於2005年5月正式成立「能源領導小組」，並積極透入政府能源白皮書與能源相關法案的草擬，政府的舉動等於是將能源政策的制訂再度「中央化」。未來中國能源戰略的最大挑戰仍來自於能源體制能否深化改革，並且制訂出對外、對內策略一致的能源戰略，以因應中國未來的石油需求以及消減國際社會的疑慮。 / The new facet of global oil politics and China’s surging oil demand have forced the Chinese government and state-owned enterprises to secure foreign oil supplies and to implement energy efficiency. However, systemic level or state-centered theories have provided limited theoretic orientation to explain China’s state behaviors and foreign behavior. It is essential to explore China’s energy institution and energy strategy behind its quest for oil security. That is, China’s foreign strategy should be put into broader context of China’s institutional evolution and domestic/foreign energy policy-making process. This research applies historical institutionalism to look at history evolution of China’s energy institution and energy strategy (especially oil strategy). Chinese energy institution has experienced four main stages of institutional evolution since 1980s. The main themes of four stages have emphasized different administrative, institutional, and energy goals. Meanwhile, institutional critical junctures and feedbacks (formation and reproduction) also have existed in every stage. The first phrase (1980-1992) emphasized how to integrate market forces into China’s bureaucratic institution with socialist characteristics and the market oriented reforms faced several institutional challenges due to necessity of central planning; the second phrase (1993-1997) was characterized by slight and limited institutional restructuring within the energy sector because market force did not gain political support from the leadership. The Chinese government established both the State Energy Commission (SEC) (1980-82) and the Ministry of Energy (MOE) (1988-93) in the wake of acute energy shortages to re-centralize authority over the energy sector. However, neither institution could effectively coordinate and implement energy policy, partly because they could not overcome the vested interests in sectional industries. The third phrase (1998-2002) was characterized by radical institutional reforms on conglomerating SOEs and delimiting administrative power. The National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) along with the Energy Bureau within it have taken over full governmental regulatory and public sector responsibility from SOEs. However, NDRC functions not as powerful as SOEs do. Therefore, the fourth phrase (2003 until now) then put attention on the establishment of a super-ministerial interagency, revivification of administrative power, and emphasis of foreign competitiveness. The establishment of State Energy Leading Group (SELG) aims at regaining strong central authority and to correcting turbulent oil strategies made on a base of institutional constraints. Above all, China’s institutional evolution is characteristic of state-regulated marketization, limited property right reforms, strategic preference, and departmentalism in China’s energy sector since 1980s. The institutional evolution has constrained China’s energy institution from planning a long-term national energy strategy. China’s energy sector continuously confirms institutional formation by the support of highest leadership and mainstream ideology, and confirms institutional reproduction between the directive and liberal forces, between the government and market forces. Meanwhile, international responses to China’s hunting behaviors are to play either a conductive role in impelling China’s institutional reforms and in adjusting its foreign behaviors. To prevent serious energy competition and to enhance international cooperation, China has shown its willingness to communicate with other nations on oil issues. However, China also needs to show its determination to implement domestic demand-side measures and a market approach instead of implementing protectionist “welcome-in” and aggressive “going out” policies. Ongoing institutional reforms still determines whether the China’s energy institution will ensure the country’s energy security. In the short term, the establishment of the central authority in the energy sector will improve departmental coordination and policy persistance. However, in the long term, China’s ongoing institional reforms need to integrate more market forces, proceed property right reforms, and reshape relationship between the government and market. Without deeper institutional reforms, energy bureaucrats and SOEs would be dragged into institutional process of formation and reproduction but gain limited results in meeting China’s oil security.