published_or_final_version / Criminology / Master / Master of Social Sciences

This thesis examines the process of approximating EC law that the Czech Republic has undertaken both under the Europe Agreement and in order to fulfill one of the conditions for membership in the European Union. The thesis aims to determine whether the transposition of EC legislation has been undertaken with a view to effective implementation of the acquis communautaire and to assess what implications this process will have for the Czech Republic. To this end, three areas of law which are subject to approximation are examined, namely competition law, environmental law and company law. Accordingly, Chapter I provides a general overview of the process of approximation and the challenges it poses for the Czech Republic. The process of approximation in the field of competition law is examined in Chapter II, followed by environmental law in Chapter III. The area of company law is addressed in Chapter IV. Finally, Chapter V concludes with an analysis of the findings of the previous chapters with a discussion of the implications of approximation for the legal order of the Czech Republic.

Diante da complexidade da problemática ambiental, emergiu a necessidade de atuação do direito ambiental internacional, através da criação de um compilado de normas imperativas, capazes de efetivar a tutela e proteção do meio ambiente, limitando a atuação do Poder Público e dos particulares. Contudo, o direito ambiental internacional precisou recorrer não só às normatizações hard law, que são as normas burocráticas e obrigatórias, mas também as normatizações soft law, as quais conseguem ser modificadas de forma simplificada ou complementadas posteriormente, consideradas um direito flexível e capaz de acompanhar as mudanças e necessidades ecológicas. No Brasil, para que haja validade dos tratados e das convenções internacionais pactuados, é necessário o referendo da ordem constitucional brasileira, haja vista que é essa ordem que dispõe sobre a admissibilidade da ordem internacional no direito interno. No direito brasileiro, a Emenda Constitucional 45, de 2004, inseriu o § 3º do art. 5º, não pacificando o entendimento hierárquico das normas internacionais em matéria de direitos humanos, aqui incluído o direito ambiental. Tal situação também não se encontra solucionada pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal, órgão competente para julgar os conflitos decorrentes do direito interno e do direito internacional, podendo-se apenas considerar por uma votação, da quase maioria, pela supralegalidade da norma internacional internalizada no ordenamento brasileiro. Ainda, os tratados pactuados em âmbito do Mercosul não possuem nenhum privilégio para adentrar no ordenamento brasileiro, bem como não há uniformização das legislações ambientais nos países membros, tampouco, um tribunal capaz de fiscalizar e sancionar os Estados não cumpridores, o que dificulta a efetividade de suas normas. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-06-05T16:22:50Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Andiara Flores.pdf: 1361562 bytes, checksum: f77f9b702a776ee84e270b577446cbaa (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-05T16:22:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Andiara Flores.pdf: 1361562 bytes, checksum: f77f9b702a776ee84e270b577446cbaa (MD5) / Given the complexity of environmental issues, there emerged the need for cooperation of international environmental law through the creation of mandatory rules compiled, capable of effecting the guardianship and protection of the environment by limiting the actions of the government and individuals. However, the international environmental law needed to appeal not only to hard law norms, which are the bureaucratic rules and compulsory, but also the soft law norms, which can be modified in a simplified form or complemented later considered a right flexible and able to follow changes and ecological needs. In Brazil, there is validity to treaties and international conventions agreed upon, it s necessary the Brazilian constitutional referendum, given that it is this order that provides for the admissibility of the international order in the law. Under Brazilian law, Constitutional Amendment 45, 2004, entered the § 3 of art. 5, do not pacify the hierarchical understanding of international standards on human rights, environmental law included here. This situation has also not been resolved by the Supreme Federal Court, a court competent to judge disputes arising from domestic law and international law, can only be considered for a vote, almost the majority of the international standard for supra-legal internalized in the Brazilian legal system. Still, the treaties agreed upon within the framework of Southern Common Market (Mercosul) have no privilege to enter into the Brazilian legal system, and there is no standardization of environmental laws in member countries, nor a court able to monitor and sanction the non-compliant States, which hinders the effectiveness of its standards.

Le droit moderne de l’environnement apparaît, en France, dans les années 1960. Il émerge de manière empirique en réaction à de grandes catastrophes écologiques et intervient dans les domaines les plus divers pour mettre en place des garde-fous juridiques propres à limiter la dégradation de l’environnement. Le droit est alors fragmenté, technique et constitue la plupart du temps un simple placage des mécanismes et des concepts juridiques classiques sur un nouvel objet : l’environnement. Le manque de cohérence et de construction du droit est progressivement pallié par l’affirmation de principes, l’édiction d’un Code et la consécration de la Charte constitutionnelle de l’environnement. En outre, au gré des réformes, le droit se construit autour de nouveaux concepts. Les concepts écologiques, qualifiés auparavant d’insuffisants pour appréhender l’environnement sont complétés avec la prise en compte, par exemple, des concepts d’écosystème, de processus écologiques ou de solidarité écologique. Une dimension conceptuelle du droit de l’environnement émerge en droit positif avec les notions phares de patrimoine commun de l’humanité, de développement durable, de précaution, d’irréversibilité, susceptible d’en rassembler les morceaux épars et d’affirmer la maturité du droit de l’environnement. La conceptualisation récente du droit de l’environnement participe d’une construction plus aboutie et d’une simplification et généralisation de la matière. / Modern environmental law appeared in France in the 1960s. It emerged empirically in response to major ecological disasters and intervened in the most diverse fields to set up legal safeguards to limit the environmental degradation. The law was then fragmented, technical and usually constituted a mere plating of conventional legal mechanisms and concepts on a new object: the environment. The lack of coherence and the construction of the law was gradually mitigated by the assertion of principles, the enactment of a Code and the consecration of the Constitutional Charter of the Environment. In addition, as the reforms proceed, law is being built around new concepts. Ecological concepts, previously qualified as insufficient to understand the environment, are supplemented by taking into account, for instance, ecosystem concepts, ecological processes or ecological solidarity. A conceptual dimension of environmental law emerges in positive law with the flagship notions of the common heritage of humanity, sustainable development, precaution, irreversibility, capable of gathering scattered pieces and asserting the maturity of environmental law. The recent conceptualization of environmental law is part of a more complete construction and a simplification and generalization of the subject matter.

Diante da complexidade da problemática ambiental, emergiu a necessidade de atuação do direito ambiental internacional, através da criação de um compilado de normas imperativas, capazes de efetivar a tutela e proteção do meio ambiente, limitando a atuação do Poder Público e dos particulares. Contudo, o direito ambiental internacional precisou recorrer não só às normatizações hard law, que são as normas burocráticas e obrigatórias, mas também as normatizações soft law, as quais conseguem ser modificadas de forma simplificada ou complementadas posteriormente, consideradas um direito flexível e capaz de acompanhar as mudanças e necessidades ecológicas. No Brasil, para que haja validade dos tratados e das convenções internacionais pactuados, é necessário o referendo da ordem constitucional brasileira, haja vista que é essa ordem que dispõe sobre a admissibilidade da ordem internacional no direito interno. No direito brasileiro, a Emenda Constitucional 45, de 2004, inseriu o § 3º do art. 5º, não pacificando o entendimento hierárquico das normas internacionais em matéria de direitos humanos, aqui incluído o direito ambiental. Tal situação também não se encontra solucionada pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal, órgão competente para julgar os conflitos decorrentes do direito interno e do direito internacional, podendo-se apenas considerar por uma votação, da quase maioria, pela supralegalidade da norma internacional internalizada no ordenamento brasileiro. Ainda, os tratados pactuados em âmbito do Mercosul não possuem nenhum privilégio para adentrar no ordenamento brasileiro, bem como não há uniformização das legislações ambientais nos países membros, tampouco, um tribunal capaz de fiscalizar e sancionar os Estados não cumpridores, o que dificulta a efetividade de suas normas. / Given the complexity of environmental issues, there emerged the need for cooperation of international environmental law through the creation of mandatory rules compiled, capable of effecting the guardianship and protection of the environment by limiting the actions of the government and individuals. However, the international environmental law needed to appeal not only to hard law norms, which are the bureaucratic rules and compulsory, but also the soft law norms, which can be modified in a simplified form or complemented later considered a right flexible and able to follow changes and ecological needs. In Brazil, there is validity to treaties and international conventions agreed upon, it s necessary the Brazilian constitutional referendum, given that it is this order that provides for the admissibility of the international order in the law. Under Brazilian law, Constitutional Amendment 45, 2004, entered the § 3 of art. 5, do not pacify the hierarchical understanding of international standards on human rights, environmental law included here. This situation has also not been resolved by the Supreme Federal Court, a court competent to judge disputes arising from domestic law and international law, can only be considered for a vote, almost the majority of the international standard for supra-legal internalized in the Brazilian legal system. Still, the treaties agreed upon within the framework of Southern Common Market (Mercosul) have no privilege to enter into the Brazilian legal system, and there is no standardization of environmental laws in member countries, nor a court able to monitor and sanction the non-compliant States, which hinders the effectiveness of its standards.

This research analyzed the possibility of characterize the current Brazilian State as an Environmental State and the consequences of this phenomenon. The concern with the environment preservation just began more strongly in the 70´s when the world started to realize the effects of inappropriate use of natural resources. It was recognized, since then, the existence of an environmental crisis that combined with the development phase that the world is, called by Ulrich Beck of risk society, promote the conditions to develop a new State model - the Environmental State - characterized by the insertion of the environmental concern among the governmental objectives. The national doctrine admits the adoption of the Environmental State according to 1988 Constitution because it is written in its text the obligation to protect the environment and as well as the recognition of the ecologically balanced environment as a fundamental right. To endorse this doctrinal position, the research investigated the presence of Environmental State characteristics in the 1988 constitutional text indicating the capable instruments to justify this statement. As the assumption of the existence of a Brazilian Environmental State was proved, the work studied two ways to contribute to the implementation of this new state model: the need for new pre-understandings from the Constitution interpreters as well as the requirement for new behaviors from the government. According to the Hans-George Gadamer philosophical rmeneutics, to understand something it is necessary a preunderstanding of the issue. Thus, to accomplish the Environmental State is necessary, initially, that the Constitution interpreter re-understands the ecological issues. In this sense, this work indicates four necessary pre-understandings to the implementation of the Brazilian Environmental State which are: the environmental crisis, the risk society and the creation of environmental problems, the need for a new relationship between man and nature, the concept of sustainable development and prohibition to retrogress in environmental subjects. In addition, it points out the ways to the Government achieve this new state model. / A pesquisa buscou averiguar a possibilidade de se caracterizar o atual Estado Brasileiro como um Estado Ambiental bem como discutir as consequências desse fenômeno. A preocupação com a preservação do meio ambiente iniciou-se de modo mais contundente a partir da década de 70 quando se começou a perceber os efeitos do uso inadequado dos recursos naturais. Reconheceu-se, a partir de então, a existência de uma crise ambiental a qual aliada à fase de desenvolvimento em que o mundo se encontra, denominada por Ulrich Beck de sociedade de risco, acabaram por criar as condições para que se desenvolvesse um novo modelo de Estado - o Estado Ambiental - caracterizado pela inserção da preocupação ambiental entre os objetivos estatais.A doutrina nacional admite a adoção do Estado Ambiental pela Constituição de 1988 em razão de constar em seu texto a obrigação da proteção do meio ambiente bem como de reconhecer o meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado como um direito fundamental. Para constatar essa posição doutrinária a pesquisa investigou a presença das cacterísticas de um Estado Ambiental no texto Constitucional de 1988 indicando os dispositivos capazes de fundamentar a afirmação. Confirmada a premissa da existência de um Estado Ambiental Brasileiro o trabalho buscou estudar duas formas de se contribuir para a efetivação desse novo modelo estatal: a necessidade de novas pré-compreensões por parte dos intérpretes da Constituição bem como a obrigatoriedade de novas condutas por parte dos poderes públicos. Segundo a hermenêutica filosófica de Hans-George Gadamer desenvolvida em sua obra Verdade e Método, para compreender algo é necessário antes uma pré-compreensão da questão. Assim, para se efetivar o Estado Ambiental é preciso, inicialmente, que o intérprete da Constituição précompreenda a questão ecológica. Nesse sentido, o trabalho indica quatro précompreensões necessárias à efetivação do Estado Ambiental Brasileiro quais sejam a crise ambiental, a sociedade de risco e as gerações de problemas ambientais, a necessidade de uma nova relação entre o homem a natureza, o conceito de desenvolvimento sustentável e a proibição de retrocesso em matéria ambiental. Além disso, pontua formas do Poder Público concretizar esse novo modelo de Estado.

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Since the start of the space race in the 1950‟s the outer space environment has significantly changed due to human expansion and the subsequent by-products known as outer space pollution/debris. As outer space rapidly evolved from a military high-ground into a commercialised asset exploited by private and state owned enterprises, the treaties negotiated in the 1960‟s and 1970‟s quickly became out-dated. As a result outer space, especially the orbits around the Earth are occupied by countless masses of non-functional manmade objects, some expected to remain for millions of years. This dissertation argues that the current national and international legal framework will be inadequate to address the problem of outer space pollution and that legal and political action will be necessary on a global scale. With the planned developments as set out in the National Space Policy, South Africa is set on becoming a leading provider of outer space services on the African continent and will, as a consequence, have a progressively bigger impact on the outer space environment. With a growing dependence on outer space technologies, developed and developing economies around the world cannot ignore the immense negative consequences that outer space debris could pose to their development. This study will thus, by examining the international and national legal framework regarding outer space pollution, provide legal recommendations pertaining to the principles and obligations that the South African legal framework will have to make provision for, in order to minimise the negative effect on the outer space environment. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The objective of this study is to conduct a critical evaluation of the environmental law framework applicable to carbon capture and storage (hereafter CCS) in South Africa. The discussion begins by confirming that CCS has a place in environmental law as a mitigation measure. The inclusion of CCS in the clean development mechanism could incentivise the development of environmental law frameworks for CCS in South Africa. Implementation of CCS is gradual, with only eight large scale integrated CCS projects having been established around the world. An appreciation of key scientific concepts is helpful for an understanding of the CCS process. The CCS project life cycle and related impacts on the environment provide a context for discussion of the legal requirements accompanying the CCS life cycle. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 and the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 constitute appropriate framework legislation for CCS. Decision 3/CMP.1, Modalities and procedures for a clean development mechanism as defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol held at Montreal from 28 November to 10 December 2001 March 2006 provides international legal requirements accompanying the project life cycle against which the South African legal framework is examined. Some provisions of additional South African laws and policies will be applicable to CCS depending on the nature of the specific CCS project, but specific regulations may have to be developed for South Africa. Policy documents have been gradually bringing clarity to the way forward in arriving at a legal framework for CCS, and by reference to existing local legislation and international guidance, an environmental law framework for CCS can be developed for South Africa. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Since the start of the space race in the 1950‟s the outer space environment has significantly changed due to human expansion and the subsequent by-products known as outer space pollution/debris. As outer space rapidly evolved from a military high-ground into a commercialised asset exploited by private and state owned enterprises, the treaties negotiated in the 1960‟s and 1970‟s quickly became out-dated. As a result outer space, especially the orbits around the Earth are occupied by countless masses of non-functional manmade objects, some expected to remain for millions of years. This dissertation argues that the current national and international legal framework will be inadequate to address the problem of outer space pollution and that legal and political action will be necessary on a global scale. With the planned developments as set out in the National Space Policy, South Africa is set on becoming a leading provider of outer space services on the African continent and will, as a consequence, have a progressively bigger impact on the outer space environment. With a growing dependence on outer space technologies, developed and developing economies around the world cannot ignore the immense negative consequences that outer space debris could pose to their development. This study will thus, by examining the international and national legal framework regarding outer space pollution, provide legal recommendations pertaining to the principles and obligations that the South African legal framework will have to make provision for, in order to minimise the negative effect on the outer space environment. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014