This thesis explores the process of identity renegotiation and the role social capital plays in civil society participation by the former refugee communities of Eritrean and Bhutanese living in Christchurch, New Zealand. This is undertaken through examination of three hypotheses pertaining to ethnic identity maintenance and national identity creation, community mobilisation and social capital, and the motivations behind such mobilisation. In comparing the processes of identity negotiation and social capital between the members of the Eritrean and Bhutanese communities, this study of 27 participants illustrates the importance of members’ ethnic community connection in the development of a national identity, and the dissimilar levels of social capital and subsequent participation in civil society by the two communities. This work analyses the role social capital within such migrant communities plays in members participation in their settlement society as well as in group’s ethnic identity maintenance. The theoretical framework of this work is influenced by the research of Berry (1997), Lucken (2010), Ager and Strang (2008) and Valtonen (1998; 2004). This study found there are much higher levels of social capital in the Bhutanese community compared to the Eritrean community. These disparate levels can be attributed to the differing demographics of the communities; the high levels of stress suffered by Eritrean members involved in the family reunification process; and the differences between the communities refugee experience prior to arrival in New Zealand. My findings also suggest that the process of national identification by migrants relies on strong connections between members’ and their ethnic community, not, as commonly assumed, participation in wider society. Importantly this work illustrates that social capital is necessary in the mobilisation of migrant communities. Grievances associated with settlement are not attended to on a community level unless there is a high degree of social capital within the community. This enables participation in civil society through the establishment of a representative community organisation, and members to cooperate with other sectors of wider society.

This diploma thesis deals with one of the aspects of armed groups' governance, namely the institutions that are created or used by armed groups and the role these institutions play in the military-civilian relations. The case study chosen is the Eritrean People's Liberation Front. This armed group was formed in 1973 in the context of the struggle for Eritrea's independence, and in the next decades it created a management system that included taxation, political committees, education, health care, and dispute settlement mechanisms. After the establishment of independent Eritrea in 1993, ELOF evolved into the People's Front for Democracy and Justice, which still remains a ruling Eritrean political party. The primary aim of the thesis is to answer the question of the role played by institutions created by non-state armed groups in building their relations with the civilian population. He is also marginally devoted to the development of Eritrea after independence.

What determines that states receive a de-jure recognition is not clear today. The three worlddominant theories constitutive theory, declarative theory and secession-theory all claim different criteria' that a state must meet in order to have the right to be recognized. The purpose of the thesis is to understand if there is a theory that is decisive. The thesis analyses two states, one of which has received international recognition while the other one has not. The thesis concludes that all three theories have the necessary conditions that can lead to recognition. The conditions in the secession theory on having a referendum have proved to be one of the crucial requirements for recognition, at the same time it is fundamental for a new state to meet the declarative theory requirements to have the possibility of recognition at all. However, it is a theory that argues for the decisive criteria, and it is the constitutive theory that claims that recognition from other states, such as the central state, is the main factor in succeeding in obtaining de-jure recognition. Although the criteria's in the other theories are met, it is only after recognition by the central government that membership of the UN can be achieved. / Vad som avgör att utbrytarstater erhåller ett de-jure erkännade är idag inte tydligt. De tre världs dominerande teorierna konstitutiva teorin, deklarativa teorin och secession-teorin hävdar alla olika kriterier som en stat måste uppfylla för att ha rätt att erkännas. Syftet med uppsatsen är att förstå vad som krävs för en stat att kunna erhålla ett internationellt erkännande. För att kunna genomföra undersökningen har två stater analyserats där den ena fått ett internationellt erkännande och den andra inte. Uppsatsens slutsats är att alla tre teorier har nödvändiga villkor som kan leda till erkännande. Secession-teorins krav på att ha en folkomröstning visar på en enorm drivprocess till att erkännas, samtidigt så är det grundläggande för en nybliven stat att uppfylla den deklarativa teorin krav för att överhuvudtaget ha möjligheten till erkännande. Däremot kan man finna de avgörande villkoren i den konstitutiva teorin som menar att erkännande från andra stater, såsom central är den främsta faktorn till att lyckas erhålla ett dejure erkännande. Även om kriterierna i den resterande teorin är uppfyllda leder ett erkännande av centralstaten till ett medlemskap i FN som är varje utbrytarstats mål med att avskiljas

No description available.

Many techniques have been developed over the years in first world countries for the estimation of flood hydrographs from small catchments for application in design, management and operations of water related issues. However, relatively little attention has been directed towards the transfer and adaptation of such techniques to developing countries in which major hydrological decisions are crucially needed, but in which a scarcity of quality hydrological data often occurs. As a result, hydrologists and engineers in developing countries are frequently unable to alleviate the problems that extreme rainfall events can create through destructive flood flows or, alternatively, they do not possess the appropriate tools with which to design economically viable hydraulic structures. Eritrea is a typical example of a developing country which faces difficulties in regard to the adaptation of an appropriate design flood estimation technique for application on small catchments. As a result, the need has arisen to adapt a relatively simple and robust design flood model that can aid hydrologists and engineers in making economic and safe designs of hydraulic structures in small catchments. One objective of this study was, therefore, to review approaches to hydrological modelling and design flood estimation techniques on small catchments, in order to identify the barriers regarding their adaptation, as well as to assist in the selection of an appropriate technique for application, in Eritrea. The southern African adaptation of the SCS (i.e. Soil Conservation Service) design hydrograph technique, which has become a standard method for design flood estimation from small catchments in that region, was selected for application on small catchments in Eritrea for several reasons. It relies on the determination of a simple catchment response index in the form of an initial Curve Number (CN), which reflects both the abstraction characteristics and the non-linear stormflow responses of the catchment from a discrete rainfall event. Many studies on the use of SCS-based hydrological models have identified that adjustment of the initial CN to a catchment's antecedent soil moisture (ASM) to be crucial, as the ASM has been found to be one of the most sensitive parameters for accurate estimates of design flood volumes and peak discharges. In hydrologically heterogeneous regions like Eritrea, the hypothesis was postulated that simulations using a suitable soil water budgeting procedure for CN adjustment would lead to improved estimates of design flood volumes and peak discharges when compared with adjustments using the conventional SCS antecedent moisture conditions (SCS-AMC) method. The primary objective of this dissertation was to develop a surrogate methodology for the soil water budgeting procedure of CN adjustment, because any direct applications of soil water budgeting techniques are impractical in most parts of Eritrea owing to a scarcity of adequate and quality controlled hydrological information. It was furthermore hypothesised that within reasonably similar climatic regions, median changes in soil moisture storage from the socalled "initial" catchment soil moisture conditions, i.e. LIS, were likely to be similar, while between different climatic regions median LISs were likely to be different. Additionally, it was postulated that climatic regions may be represented by a standard climate classification system. Based on the above hypotheses, the Koppen climate classification, which can be derived from mean monthly rainfall and temperature information, was first applied to the 712 relatively homogeneous hydrological response zones which had previously been identified in southern Africa. A high degree of homogeneity of median values of LIS, derived by the daily time step ACRU soil moisture budgeting model, was observed for zones occurring within each individual Koppen climate class (KCC) - this after a homogeneity test had been performed to check if zones falling in a specific KCC had similar values of median LIS. Further assessment within each KCC found in southern Africa then showed that a strong relationship existed between LIS and Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP). This relationship was, however, different between KCCs. By developing regression equations, good simulations of median LIS from MAP were observed in each KCC, illustrating the potential application of the Koppen climate classification system as an indicator of regional median LIS, when only very basic monthly climatological information is available. The next critical task undertaken was to test whether the estimate of median LIS from MAP by regression equation for a specific Koppen climate class identified in southern Africa would remain similar for an identical Koppen climatic region in Eritrea. As already mentioned, LIS may be determined from daily time step hydrological soil moisture budget models such as ACRU model. The performance of the ACRU stormflow modelling approach was, therefore, first verified on an Eritrean gauged research catchment, viz. the Afdeyu, in order to have confidence in the use of values of LIS generated by it. A SCS-ACRU stormflow modelling approach was then tested on the same catchment by using the new approach of CN adjustment, termed the ACRU-Koppen method, and results were compared against stormflow volumes obtained using the SCS-AMC classes and the Hawkins' soil water budgeting procedures for CN adjustment, as well as when CNs remain unadjusted. Despite the relatively limited level of information on climate, soils and land use for the Afdeyu research catchment, the ACRU model simulated both daily and monthly flows well. By comparing the outputs generated from the SCS model when using the different methods of CN adjustment, the ACRU-Koppen method displayed better levels of performances than either of the other two SCS-based methods. A further statistical comparison was made among the ACRU, the SCS adjusted by ACRU-Koppen, the SCS adjusted by AMC classes and the unadjusted SCS models for the five highest stormflows produced from the five highest daily rainfall amounts of each year on the Afdeyu catchment. The ACRU model produced highly acceptable statistics from stormflow simulations on the Afdeyu catchment when compared to the SCS-based estimates. In comparing results from the ACRU-Koppen method to those from the SCS-AMC and unadjusted CN methods it was found that, statistically, the ACRU-Koppen performed much better than either of the other two SCS based methods. On the strength of these results the following conclusions were drawn: • Changes in soil moisture storage from so-called "initial" catchment soil moisture conditions, i.e. L1S, are similar in similar climatic regions; and • Using the ACRU-Koppen method ofCN adjustment, the SCS-SA model can, therefore, be adapted for application in Eritrea, for which Koppen climates can be produced from monthly rainfall and temperature maps. Finally, future research needs for improvements in the SCS-ACRU-Koppen (SAK) approach in light of data availability and the estimation ofL1S were identified. From the findings of this research and South African experiences, a first version of a "SCSEritrea" user manual based on the SAK modelling approach has been produced to facilitate its use throughout Eritrea. This user manual, although not an integral part of this dissertation, is presented in its entirety as an Appendix. A first Version of the SCS-Eritrea software is also included. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

<p>Mitt syfte med detta arbete är att få en bild av hur relationerna mellan olika religiösa samfund såg ut under en tid då EFS byggde upp och etablerade sin verksamhet i Eritrea. För att få ett lokalt signum på uppsatsen kommer den till stor del att handla om en lokal missionär, Olle Hagner från Ovansjö socken, som kom att tillbringa närmare 40 år som missionär i östra Afrika – många av dessa med sin fru som följeslagare.</p><p>Följande frågeställningar har fungerat som utgångspunkt:</p><p>* Varför missionerade EFS i just Eritrea?</p><p>* Vad åstadkom Olle Hagner?</p><p>* Är det möjligt att se en förändring över tid på hur missionärerna såg på den inhemska religionen på plats?</p><p>* Hur gestaltade sig de inter- och intrareligiösa relationerna mellan EFS-missionärer (särskilt Hagner), muslimer, kopter, katoliker och anhängare av den inhemska religionen?</p><p>* Vilka tänkbara orsaker ligger bakom eventuella förändringar i attityder och relationer?</p><p>Kritiken från Hagner och EFS mot andra samfund var bitvis hård, och då framförallt mot den katolska kyrkan. Detta är inte förvånande då den katolska kyrkan gjorde allt för att tränga ut EFS’ missionärer ur Eritrea och lyckades också med detta under en period.</p><p>Olle Hagner anlände till Eritrea första gången 1923 efter att ha lovat att ta vid efter sin broder Johans tidigare missionsgärning i Eritrea som han tvingats avbryta på grund av sjukdom. Hagner kom att arbeta som missionär i Eritrea i närmare 40 år och hans tid som missionär kom att innebära många konflikter, framförallt med den katolska kyrkan och den italienska staten vilka han inte värderade högt. Hagner samarbetade under sin tid i Eritrea med flertalet av andra religiösa samfund. Hagner utövade sin mission i tre olika språkområden i Eritrea. I ett av dom, Kunama, har Hagner utfört översättningsarbeten av bland annat Nya testamentet.</p>

Mitt syfte med detta arbete är att få en bild av hur relationerna mellan olika religiösa samfund såg ut under en tid då EFS byggde upp och etablerade sin verksamhet i Eritrea. För att få ett lokalt signum på uppsatsen kommer den till stor del att handla om en lokal missionär, Olle Hagner från Ovansjö socken, som kom att tillbringa närmare 40 år som missionär i östra Afrika – många av dessa med sin fru som följeslagare. Följande frågeställningar har fungerat som utgångspunkt: * Varför missionerade EFS i just Eritrea? * Vad åstadkom Olle Hagner? * Är det möjligt att se en förändring över tid på hur missionärerna såg på den inhemska religionen på plats? * Hur gestaltade sig de inter- och intrareligiösa relationerna mellan EFS-missionärer (särskilt Hagner), muslimer, kopter, katoliker och anhängare av den inhemska religionen? * Vilka tänkbara orsaker ligger bakom eventuella förändringar i attityder och relationer? Kritiken från Hagner och EFS mot andra samfund var bitvis hård, och då framförallt mot den katolska kyrkan. Detta är inte förvånande då den katolska kyrkan gjorde allt för att tränga ut EFS’ missionärer ur Eritrea och lyckades också med detta under en period. Olle Hagner anlände till Eritrea första gången 1923 efter att ha lovat att ta vid efter sin broder Johans tidigare missionsgärning i Eritrea som han tvingats avbryta på grund av sjukdom. Hagner kom att arbeta som missionär i Eritrea i närmare 40 år och hans tid som missionär kom att innebära många konflikter, framförallt med den katolska kyrkan och den italienska staten vilka han inte värderade högt. Hagner samarbetade under sin tid i Eritrea med flertalet av andra religiösa samfund. Hagner utövade sin mission i tre olika språkområden i Eritrea. I ett av dom, Kunama, har Hagner utfört översättningsarbeten av bland annat Nya testamentet.

ABSTRACT Depression is one of the oldest known mental health conditions. It is acknowledged to be a global health problem that affects people from any culture or ethnic group. The prevalence of depression widely varied across countries and cultures. The cross-cultural relevance of the concept of depression, its screening or diagnosis, and cultural equivalence of items used to measure symptoms of depression has been area of research interest. Differences in prevalence rates in depression have been suggested as being due to research artifacts, such as use of instrument developed for one culture to another culture. With the current trend of globalization and increased rate of immigration, the need for measurement scales that can be used cross-culturally is becoming essential. Translation and adaptation of existing tools to different languages is time saving and cost effective than developing a new scale. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; (Radloff, 1977)] has been widely used as a screening tool for depressive symptoms in community and clinical settings. It has been widely accepted and translated to multiple languages and its measurement equivalence tested across groups. This study was designed as a mixed method study. The purpose of this study was three fold: (a) translate and adapt the CES-D scale into Tigrigna Language for use by Tigrigna speaking Eritrean immigrants in the United States using the forward backward translation and cognitive interview techniques (b) test the psychometric properties of the Tigrigna version CES-D scale using confirmatory factor analysis under the framework of structural equation modeling and (c) test measurement equivalence of the scale by comparing data collected from 253 Eritrean immigrants using the Tigrigna version CES-D scale with a secondary data collected from 1918 non Eritrean US citizens using the English version CES-D scale in a separate study. The baseline four factor CES-D scale model originally suggested for the general population fitted the data from both samples. The fit indices for the Tigrigna sample were (χ2 = 299.87, df = 164, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .06, GFI = .89, and CFI = .98) and for the English sample (χ2 = 1496.81, df = 164, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04, GFI = .92, and CFI = .98). The Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis showed reasonably adequate fit (χ2 (328) = 1796.68, RMSEA= .07, SRMR = .06, GFI = .89, CFI = .98). Fourteen of the 20 CES-D items were invariant across the two samples suggesting partial metric invariance. Partial full factor invariance was also supported. In conclusion, the findings of this study provide adequate evidence in support of the applicability of the four factor CES-D scale for measuring depressive symptoms in Tigrigna speaking Eritrean immigrants/refugees in the United States.

No description available.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, 2005. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.