Edward Bouverie Pusey once towered over nineteenth-century British theology, but he has now fallen into almost entire insignificance. However, analysis of this decline (Chapter 1) leads to a reassessment. His development—especially his complicated relationship with pre-Tractarian High Church Anglicanism—shows a deep criticism of post-Enlightenment intellectual trends, from his early years through his association with the Oxford Movement and the Tracts for the Times, to the end of his life (Chapter 2). This criticism led him to the patristic use of allegory, both as a biblical hermeneutic and as a creative, complex, image-based approach to theology (Chapter 3). His development of High Church theology (seen especially through comparison with Waterland) and his use of allegory can be traced throughout his theology. His understanding of union with Christ and theosis reveals both: the sacraments have a strong symbolic dimension, while his positions on baptismal regeneration and the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist show a development rather than a rejection of earlier High Church theology (Chapters 4 and 5). His understanding of the atonement blends High Church reliance on sacrificial types with his unitive theology to reconfigure traditional satisfaction theory as restoration of love for God, rather than redemption from punishment—a position which marks Pusey as an important transitional figure in 19th c. theology (Chapter 6). The flexibility of Pusey's allegorical approach also allows him to blend a High Church tradition of spiritual sacrifice with sacramental participation in Christ's self-offering, so that sacrifice becomes an aspect of union with Christ (Chapter 7). Pusey's use of allegory shows similarities to postmodern theology, while his development of High Church theology shows his originality (Chapter 8).

The last Supper Jesus had with his disciples on the night before he died on the cross is the foundation of a major liturgical celebration in the Catholic Church called 'the Eucharist'. One of the major designations of the Eucharist is that it is a sacrifice. The starting point of this work is that the sacrificial character of the Eucharist is not as meaningful and relevant for Xhosa people as it should be. The way forward is to study the Eucharistic and Xhosa sacrifices, compare them and suggest ways of rendering the Eucharistic sacrifice meaningful and relevant to Xhosa the people. Although not conclusive, the New Testament gives a strong foundation for the sacrificial understanding of the Eucharist. The Eucharist, as interpreted through the Last Supper accounts, covers all the conventional intentions of sacrifice, i.e. propitiation, communion, thanksgiving and mutual responsibility. The Fathers of the Church affirm the sacrificial character of the Eucharist with varying emphases, but taken together, their understanding shows development of thought and complementarity of themes. In the Middle Ages the most pronounced intention of the . Eucharistic sacrifice is propitiation and post Tridentine theological reflection is informed by this mentality. According to modem and contemporary thought, Christ's death on the cross, which is sacrarnentally represented in the Eucharist, is not an act performed on our behalf to appease an angry God but God's act of love towards us. The emphasis is on self-offering to God as exemplified by Christ. The Xhosa people still have regard for sacrificial rituals, but modernity has modified and sometimes changed their understanding and practice of sacrifice. The principle of God's universal salvific will and the doctrine of incarnation provide theological grounds for inculturating the Eucharist. Thus the inclusion of ancestors and use of cultural symbols in the celebration of the Eucharist may render it meaningful to Xhosa people. Relating the Eucharist to Xhosa culture will revitalise the communion element in Eucharistic sacrifice, which element has been lost sight of through the centuries. Eucharistic sacrifice in its turn will help Xhosa Catholics to have a deepened understanding of sacrifice that extends beyond performance of rituals to include self-giving. / Philosophy, Practical and Systematic Theology / D.Th.(Systematic Theology)

The forming of liturgy in the Dutch Reformed Church is in a crisis. The current context demands new liturgies in order to facilitate meaningful communication between God and His children. The problem is that no healthy practice of liturgy forming exists and more decay than change takes place. Therefore, the need exists for a workable theory for liturgy forming which can be used in the forming of a justified liturgy. In this study a theory and liturgies are worked out which takes the liturgy forming through the centuries into account. The theory, which is known as the three resources theory, is a dynamic theory in which the energy resources are placed in interaction with one another in order to form new liturgies. The three energy resources are the Bible, the tradition and the context. These three resources are focused on an eschatological focus point in the future. The Bible as energy resource especially has authority since it contains the worship style and example of Jesus Christ. The tradition exists of the narrative off liturgy forming through the centuries. The tradition offers a treasure of examples, which can be used for liturgy forming in the current context. The current context forms an integral part of the liturgy forming process. The post-modernism, the remains of the modernism, globalisation, the transformation process in South Africa and the modem developments in the human sciences are all forces which influence the liturgy forming process indirectly. These energy circles are placed in interaction with one another, new justified liturgies are formed which makes meaningful communication between God and His children possible. The investigation on liturgy forming in 13 various congregations in England and South Africa indicated that, where one or more of the energy resources is neglected, responsible energy forming does not take place. The current context requires that modem liturgy should emphasize symbols, emotion and dialogue. More love should also be shown during services. / Die liturgievorming van die Ned Geref Kerk is in 'n krisis. Die huidige konteks stel nuwe eise aan die liturgie wat vra vir nuwe liturgiee om die kommunikasie tussen God en Sy kinders sinvol en betekenisvol te fasiliteer. Die probleem is dat daar nie 'n gesonde praktyk van liturgievorming bestaan nie en dat meer verval as verandering plaasvind. Daar is dus 'n behoefte aan 'n werkbare teorie vir liturgievorming wat gebruik kan word in die vorming van verantwoorde liturgie. In hierdie studie word 'n teorie en liturgiee uitgewerk wat die werkende energiebronne in liturgievorming deur die eeue in ag neem. Die teorie, wat bekendstaan as die driebronneteorie, is 'n dinamiese teorie waarin die energiebronne in wisselwerking met mekaar geplaas word vir die vorming van nuwe liturgiee. Die drie energiebronne is die Skrif, die tradisie en die konteks. Hierdie drie bronne word gefokus op 'n eskatologiese fokuspunt in die toekoms. Die Skrif as energiebron is veral gesagdraend omdat dit die aanbiddingstyl en voorbeeld van Jesus Christus bevat. Die tradisie bestaan uit die verhaal van die liturgievorming deur die eeue waar die drie energiebronne telkens in wisselwerking met mekaar was. Die tradisie bied 'n skatkis van voorbeelde waaruit geleen kan word vir liturgievorming in die huidige konteks. Die huidige konteks is 'n integrale deel van die liturgievormingsproses. Die Postmodemisme, die reste van die Modemisme, globalisering, die oorgangsituasie in Suid-Afrika en hedendaagse ontwikkelinge in die menswetenskappe is almal kragte wat indirek inwerk op die liturgievormingsproses. Slegs wanneer die energiesirkels in wisselwerking met mekaar geplaas word, word verantwoordelik nuwe liturgiee gevorm wat sinvolle kommunikasie tussen God en sy kinders bewerkstellig. Die ondersoek na die liturgievorming in 12 verskillende gemeentes in Engeland en Suid-Afrika het aan die lig gebring dat waar een of meer van die energiebronne verwaarloos word, verantwoordelike vorming nie plaasvind nie. Die huidige konteks vra dat byderwetse liturgie meer klem op simbole, emosie en dialogiese kommunikasie sal plaas. Liturgie sal ook moeite moet doen om meer liefde oor te dra in die eredienste. Ter wille van die fasilitering van 'n dieper spiritualiteit kan die liturgie van die Ned Geref Kerk spesifieke liturgiese elemente en -houdings gaan leen by antler spiritualiteite en so sy eie liturgie verbreed. Dit bly 'n haalbare uitdaging om voortdurend verantwoordelik liturgie te vorm indien die Skrif, die tradisie en die konteks as energiebronne in wisselwerking met mekaar geraadpleeg word en gefokus word op die eskatologiese. / D.Th. (Practical Theology)

Dans ce travail de doctorat, nous avons pour objectif de reconstituer les présupposés et les conséquences de la thèse ockhamiste selon laquelle la quantité n’est pas réellement distincte de la substance ou de la qualité. Cette thèse est formulée dans les écrits philosophiques et théologiques de Guillaume d’Ockham, logicien et théologien anglais du début du XIVe siècle (1285-1349). La thèse est organisée en trois parties. La première partie a pour objet la question de savoir comment s’organise la catégorie de quantité si l’on admet que la quantité n’est pas réellement distincte de la substance ou de la qualité. La deuxième partie, consacrée à la physique de la quantité, traite de chacune des trois espèces de quantité, la quantité permanente continue (l’extension spatiale), la quantité successive (le mouvement et le temps) et la quantité discrète (le nombre). Enfin, la troisième partie consiste en une description et une évaluation de la théorie ockhamiste de la structure métaphysique de la substance / The aim of this PhD dissertation is to reconstruct the assumptions and consequences of the ockhamist thesis according to which quantity is not really distinct from substance or from quality. This thesis can be found in the philosophical and theological writings of William of Ockham, a logician and Franciscan theologian from the beginning of the 14th century (1285-1349).The dissertation is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the question how the category of quantity is organised if one assumes that quantity is not really distinct from substance or from quality. The second part is dedicated to the physics of quantity. Each species of quantity is examined, that is permanent continuous quantity (spatial extension), successive quantity (motion and time) and discrete quantity (number). Lastly, the third part consists in a description and an evaluation of the ockhamist theory of the metaphysical structure of substance

A presente pesquisa faz um levantamento das principais concep-ções sobre a Santa Ceia na "teologia oficial" e na "teologia popular" no âmbito da Igreja Evangélica Luterana do Brasil (IELB) e depois de comparar e interpretar os dados levantados tira as conseqüências para a prática litúrgica à luz das origens do culto cristão. No capítulo um faz-se uma explanação sobre a Santa Ceia na "teologia oficial" da IELB, definindo-a como um sacramento, identificando seus benefícios, enumerando suas conseqüências, falando do preparo para a participação e de quem participa dela. No capítulo dois faz-se a explanação do resultado de uma pesquisa social para identificar os principais elementos da "teologia popular" concernente à Santa Ceia no âmbito da IELB. Neste capítulo destacam-se os principais enunciados da "teologia popular": os participantes da Ceia são os que se preparam para participar, os que andam no caminho certo, os que são batizados e confirmados, que são da igreja ou crêem no que a igreja ensina. Faz-se referência a um grupo de entrevistados que não impõe qualquer condição, mas que diz que todos podem participar. Entre os benefícios da participação da Santa Ceia, na "teologia popular" destacam-se: traz perdão dos pecados, recebe-se o corpo e o sangue de Cristo, traz salvação, traz alívio e paz ao coração, fortalece e renova a fé. As conseqüências da participação da Santa Ceia, segundo a "teologia popular", são as que seguem: ajuda na mudança de atitudes, oportuniza a comunhão com Deus e com os irmãos, torna o local da celebração um lugar de bem-estar . Outros aspectos relevantes da pesquisa foram destacados na "teologia popular": é importante consagrar os elementos, lembra-se dos hinos e da liturgia, lembra-se da instrução e da primeira comunhão, lembra-se de pessoas queridas. No capítulo três se faz uma justaposição, comparação e interpretação dos enunciados da "teologia oficial" e da "teologia popular". Neste capítulo colocam-se lado a lado os enunciados da "teologia oficial" e da "teologia popular", buscando identificar semelhanças e diferenças entre ambas e procurando identificar possíveis causas para essas semelhanças e diferenças. No último capítulo, fazendo-se um retorno ao passado, apresentam-se as conseqüências das descobertas da pesquisa para a prática da Santa Ceia à luz das origens do culto cristão. Neste capítulo, ao se tratar da Eucaristia nas origens do culto cristão, fala-se das influências judaicas, apreciam-se aspectos relevantes da última Ceia de Cristo, discorre-se a respeito do "partir do pão" na era apostólica e, por fim, do testemunho da Igreja Antiga acerca da Eucaristia. A partir desses referenciais das origens do culto cristão, procura-se listar possíveis conseqüências para a prática da Santa Ceia no âmbito da IELB. / This research makes a survey about the main conceptions relating to the Holy Supper from the point of view of the "official theology" and from the perspective of "popular theology" in the context of The Igreja Evangélica Luterana do Brasil (IELB). After comparing and interpreting the results, conclusions are made for the liturgical practice in the light of the origins of the Christian worship. In the first chapter there is an explanation about the Holy Supper in the "official theology" of IELB defining it as a sacrament, identifying its benefits, establishing its consequences, discussing the preparation for participation of those involved in it. In chapter two, there is the explanation of the results of a social survey in order to identify the main elements of the "popular theology" concerning Holy Supper in the congregations of IELB. In this chapter the focus is on the main enunciations of the "popular theology": the participants of the Holy Supper are those who prepare themselves for Communion, those who walk in the right path, those who are baptized and confirmed, and those who belong to the church or believe in the churchs teaching. There is reference to a group that was interviewed that does not put any condition and says that any person can participate. Among the benefits of those who participate in the Holy Supper, in the "popular theology", the following can be emphasized: it brings forgiveness of sins, the body and blood of Christ are received, it brings salvation, it brings relieve and peace to the heart, it strengthens and renews the faith. The consequences of the participation in the Holy Supper, according to the "popular theology", are the following: help in the change of behavior, it bestows communion with God and with fellow brothers and sisters, it turns the place of celebration into a pleasant place. Other aspects: it is important to consecrate the elements, the person remembers the hymns and liturgy, the Confirmation instruction and the first Communion, and remembers beloved people. In chapter three, there is a juxtaposition, comparison, and interpretation of the data taken from the "official theology" and of the "popular theology". In this chapter this research parallels the enunciations of the "official theology" and of the "popular theology" where it identifies the similarities and the differences between them trying to identify possible causes for these similarities and differences. In the last chapter, there is a return to the past. This chapter presents the results of the research for the practice of the Holy Supper in the light of the origins of Christian worship. This chapter, when analysing the Eucharist in the origins of the Christian worship, deals with the Jewish influences, important aspects of Christs Last Supper are valued; it discusses the "breaking of the bread" in the Apostolic era and, finally, the chapter discusses the witness of the Ancient Church about the Eucharist. Beginning with these references of the origins of the Christian worship, this research lists possible consequences for the practice of the Holy Supper at IELBs sphere of action.

À la veille de la prise définitive de Thessalonique, l’archevêque Syméon (†1429) apporte les dernières retouches à son commentaire mystagogique, l’Explication touchant le temple divin, les ornements sacrés et la divine Mystagogie. Il s’agit de la troisième version d’un traité destiné à l’origine au clergé crétois. Le dernier traité mystagogique byzantin fait le tableau des fastes d’une liturgie pontificale et enregistre les derniers développements d’un rituel dont l’évolution touche alors à son terme. Synthèse de la tradition mystagogique qui l’a précédé, l’ouvrage manifeste un véritable retour aux sources du genre (Denys l’Aréopagite et Maxime le Confesseur). Syméon y propose un exposé de la doctrine eucharistique conforme aux thèses palamites sur la Grâce, conçue comme énergie commune aux hypostases de la Trinité mais distincte de son essence. Ce commentaire a joué un rôle essentiel dans le développement et la transmission du palamisme au sein de l’Église grecque. Cette dernière version est conservée dans le Zagorensis 23, où une main est intervenue directement dans le corps et les marges du texte afin de le corriger et de l’amplifier. La question de savoir si ces interventions sont autographes se pose. Nous tenterons d’en comprendre la signification. D’autre part les quatre témoins qui conservent cette version révisée, nous permettront d’en retracer l’histoire. Complétée par ces quatre témoins, nous présentons une édition de la leçon du Zagorensis, de lecture souvent difficile et lacunaire. Elle sera accompagnée d’une traduction. En contrepoint, l’étude de la tradition manuscrite nous permettra d’esquisser l’histoire de deux premières versions de cette œuvre / On the eve of the definitive fall of Thessalonica, archbishop Symeon (1429 ) brings the last touch to his mystagogical comment, the Explanation about the Divine Temple, the Sacred Ornaments and Divine Mystagogy. It is the third version of a treaty originally intended for the Cretan clergy. The last Byzantine Mystagogical treaty made thepicture of the splendors of an episcopal liturgy and registered the last developments of a rite the evolution of which touched then its term. Synthesis of the mystagogical tradition which preceded, the work testifies for a real return to the sources of the genre (Denys the Areopagite and Maxime the Confessor). Symeon proposes a presentation of the eucharistic doctrine in accordance with the palamites theses on the Grace, conceived as the energy common to the hypostases of the Trinity but different from Their essence. This comment played anessential role in the development and the transmission of Palamism within the Greek Church. This last version is preserved in Zagorensis 23, where a hand intervened directly in the body and the margins of the text to correct and amplify it. The question to know if these interventions are original arises. We shall try to understand its meaning. On the other hand four witnesses which keep this revised version, will allow us to redraw its history. Completed by these four witnesses, we present an edition of the lesson of Zagorensis, whose reading is often difficult and incomplete. It will be accompanied with a translation. In counterpoint, the study of the handwritten tradition will allow us to sketch the history of first two versions of this work.

La thèse s’attache à mettre au jour la manière dont Descartes envisage le rapport de sa philosophie avec le christianisme, en montrant que l’articulation cartésienne de la raison et de la foi trouve son sens dans une séparation non contradictoire qui aboutit à un accord. Descartes apparaît soucieux d’instaurer des principes philosophiques novateurs qui, tout en prenant le contre-pied de ceux d’Aristote promulgués par la scolastique, s’accordent avec le christianisme.La thèse retient deux champs d’investigation pour étudier le sens d’un tel accord et le rapport au christianisme qu’il implique. D’une part, la théorie eucharistique cartésienne : Descartes élabore, à l’aune de ses propres principes physiques, deux explications du sacrement central de la foi chrétienne. Supplantant le modèle scolastique basé sur les principes aristotélico-thomistes, les explications sont destinées à se conformer aux décrets du Magistère (le concile de Trente), tout en protégeant le dogme catholique des attaques protestantes, en lui apportant un gain de rationalité. D’autre part, la morale cartésienne, tenue généralement pour absente du corpus cartésien : la thèse s’emploie à la reconstruire, par le prisme de la Correspondance et des Passions de l’âme. Nommée une « morale du contentement », de par la recherche philosophique de la vie heureuse ici-bas, la morale cartésienne se partage en deux axes : le souverain bien, résidant dans le bon usage du libre arbitre par lequel l’homme porte l’image et la ressemblance de Dieu, et la maîtrise des passions, dont la clef de voûte réside dans la passion-vertu de la générosité. Or, la morale manifeste, à un autre niveau que l’eucharistie, un effort d’articulation avec le christianisme qui se cristallise notamment dans plusieurs points forts, analysés par la thèse : la conception cartésienne de la providence, dans sa dimension générale et particulière, qui engage la soumission libre et joyeuse du sujet, illustrant une expérience proprement religieuse ; l’étendue de l’univers qui révoque l’anthropocentrisme tout en célébrant la gloire de Dieu ; l’immortalité de l’âme, ouvrant vers une autre vie, tout en étant dirigée vers la valorisation de la vie ici-bas ; l’image de Dieu qui rayonne dans le bon usage du libre arbitre, seule source d’une juste estime de soi ; la passion vertu de la générosité qui, incitant à préférer les autres à soi dans un amour d’amitié, peut tenir lieu de transposition philosophique de la charité chrétienne.Ainsi eucharistie et morale traduisent-elles deux grandes significations de l’accord, reflétant deux modalités d’articulation entre la philosophie cartésienne et le christianisme : d’un côté, la recherche d’une conformité au dogme ; de l’autre, la philosophie, se faisant plus ambitieuse, donne une compréhension du christianisme à partir de la manière dont elle interprète, selon ses propres présupposés, certains éléments partagés par la raison et la foi (Dieu et ses attributs, immortalité de l’âme, rapport à l’autre). A ce titre, la thèse entend renouveler les études sur la « pensée religieuse » de Descartes : le grand mérite de la pensée cartésienne est de mettre en oeuvre, sur la base d’une séparation préalable entre raison et foi, un accord qui ne se joue pas dans le même sens, tout en veillant à ne jamais outrepasser son domaine, en n’envisageant ni le salut ni la grâce, laissés à la théologie. / The thesis brings into light the manner in which Descartes considers the relationship between his philosophy and Christianity through showing that the Cartesian articulation of reason and faith finds its meaning in a non-contradictory separation which leads to an agreement. When analysing his work, Descartes appears as a philosopher who looks after to establish new concepts which conciliate with Christianity.The thesis focuses two fields of investigation to study the meaning of such an agreement and the relationship to Christianity that it involves. On one hand, there is the Cartesian Eucharistic theory: Descartes elaborates, in the light of his own physical principles, two explanations of the central sacrament of the Christian faith. The thesis points out the original purpose of the explanations. In brief, they are not only intended to supplant the scholastic model based on the Aristotelian principles but also to conform to the decrees of the Magisterium (the Council of Trent), amid protecting the Catholic dogma from Protestant attacks, bringing it a gain of rationality. On the other hand, there is the Cartesian morality, which is considered traditionally as absent of the Cartesian corpus. The thesis reconstructs the Cartesian moral theory using the Correspondence and Passions of the soul. Described as a "moral of contentment", due to the Philosophical research of “the happy life” here below, the Cartesian moral theory is divided into two axes. The first being the Sovereign Good, which consists in the right use of free will, and the second being the mastery of passions, where the keystone is the passion-virtue of generosity. The Cartesian moral theory manifests an effort to articulate with Christianity, which is illustrated in particular in several strong points which are analysed by the thesis: the Cartesian conception of providence in its general and particular dimension, and how it implies the free and joyful submission of the subject; the extent of the universe, which revokes anthropocentrism while celebrating the glory of God; the topic of the immortality of the soul, which opens up another life while valorising the current life; the image of God, which shines in the right use of free will, only source of the self-esteem; the passion of generosity, which incites one to prefer other people rather than the self in a love of friendship and can be a philosophical transposition of Christian charity.Thus Eucharist and moral translate two great meanings of the agreement, reflecting two modalitiesof articulation between Cartesian philosophy and Christianity. From one side, the search for conformity with dogma. From the other, philosophy, becoming more ambitious over time, gives an understanding of Christianity based on its own interpretation of some elements shared by reason and faith (God and his attributes, immortality of soul, relationship to other). For this reason, the thesis intends to renew the studies on the Descartes' religious thought: the great merit of Cartesian thought is to institute, on the basis of a prior separation between reason and faith, an agreement which has a variable meaning, while taking care not to go beyond his domain, Descartes giving up the salvation and the grace to theology.

The Gnostic Mass of the Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica (E.G.C.) suggests a heterosexual gender binary in which the female Priestess seated on the altar as the sexual and fertile image of the divine feminine is directed by the male Priest’s activity, desire and speech. The apparent contradiction between the empowered individual and the polarized gender role was examined by comparing the ritual symbolism of the feminine with the interpretations of four Priestesses and three Priests (three pairs plus one). Findings suggest that the Priestess’ role in the Gnostic Mass is associated with channeling, receptivity, womb, cup, and fertility, while the Priest’s role is associated with enthusiasm, activity, phallus, lance, and virility. Despite this strong gender duality, the Priestesses asserted that their role was personally and spiritually empowering, and they maintained heterosexual and polarized gendered roles are necessary in a transformative ritual which ultimately reveals the godlike unified individual.

Saint Francis' quest for the Crucified through the San Damiano Cross Abstract The encounter with the Crucified is the constitutive element of the spirituality of Saint Francis of Assisi. The objective of my thesis is finding the deeper understanding of Francis' perception of the cross. The topic should be elucidated by the San Damiano Cross Icon and other moments of the Saint of Assisi's life. The study of Francis' relation to the cross will be put into an appropriate context: the theology of the cross is mainly ingrained in the Jesus Christ's Mystery of Easter. This knowledge is deepened in life of the Early Church and, through the enriching epoch-making interposition even the "poor little" of Assisi may experience its fruits. In the fundamental part of the text I will organize the key materials for the study of Francis' relation to the crucified Christ contained in the franciscan sources with the help of the newest literature. Therefore the thesis will offer a complex view to one of the crucial moments of Francis' conversion. Keywords Saint Francis of Assisi, San Damiano, icon, cross, theology of the cross, The Crucified, history of the cross, speaking cross, franciscan sources, St. Paul, St. Bonaventure

The monumental sculpture, especially the pulpits, of the father and son duo, Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, have often been compared to ancient Roman and early Christian sarcophagi. Giovanni produced a pulpit with two accompanying lecterns for the Pisa Cathedral, which is just a few steps away from the Camposanto, a “holy field”, or cemetery, built around sacred soil from Golgotha which serves to house a huge collection of sarcophagi. Iconography, composition, relief style, and even the materiality of Giovanni’s Pisa pulpit is in part governed by, and connected to, these sarcophagi. This influence is especially highlighted by the Epistles lectern, which depicts a half-length Christ as the Man of Sorrows encircled about and raised aloft by two angels. This unusual depiction of the Man of Sorrows seems to be appropriating a long tradition of the imago clipeata, or visual apotheosis. Giovanni borrows this classical imagery and updates it to reflect contemporary Christianity. The presence of the classical clipeata on the lectern underlines the two natures of Christ, which is a main characteristic of the iconography of the Man of Sorrows. The lectern’s clipeata and the reference to sarcophagi establishes a connection to ritual, but in this case Christian ritual, namely the sermon and the Eucharist. The imagery embodies an affective focus on the love and humanity of Christ as the crux of salvation, a characteristic of thirteenth- and fourteenth-century preaching. The drapery and textile, which act as the frame of the clipeata on the lectern, allude to the tramezzo, or choir screen, and liturgical cloths found at the high altar—both are liturgical accessories that aid the viewer during the consecration of the Eucharist. Giovanni Pisano adopts this antique imagery and recontextualizes it in an early-fourteenth century Christian setting as it becomes a creative commentary on the liturgy, devotion, and significance of place at the cathedral of Pisa.