This thesis explores the historical evolution of the nature of the link between a product and its place of origin in the European sui generis systems of GI protection, with a specific focus on the EU Regulation 1151/2012 on Geographical Indications for the protection of agricultural products and foodstuffs. It concludes that this link has substantively changed, since the 1930s, when some early forms of sui generis GI systems were introduced in southern Europe, especially in France and Italy. While these regimes were based exclusively on the concept of terroir, a cipher for the physical link between a product and a place, an empirical analysis carried out in the present work reveals that, today, the history of the product and of its method of production is, statistically, the predominant linking factor. Furthermore, the research shows that the historical link is almost always mentioned in the specifications of EU GI products, when protected both by Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) or Protected Geographical Indications (PGI), which are the two quality schemes provided by EU Law. In particular, the terroir element, which characterises PDOs, also appears frequently in PGI specifications, where it should be superfluous, thus suggesting that the differences between these two quality schemes are unclear. Finally, the emergence of the historical element confirms that GIs can contribute to the protection of products that are linked to a geographical area not by physical and environmental factors, but by the socio-cultural traditions of a specific place. Although history can constitute a valid product/link, however, it must be used with caution, as it can be mystified and reconstructed in an arbitrary and unfounded way. This is dangerous, because it can turn GIs into a mere marketing tool, thus damaging the origin function that distinguishes them from the broad family of quality labels.

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Le contentieux précontractuel des marchés publics en France et en Roumanie est une étude comparative qui a comme objet l’analyse synthétique et pragmatique des mécanismes nationaux français et roumains destinés à assurer la protection des opérateurs économiques contre les éventuels manquements aux principes de transparence et de mise en concurrence. La comparaison des deux ordres juridiques est initiée à partir de la présentation du droit européen du contentieux des marchés publics qui a influencé de manière substantielle les systèmes juridiques nationaux. Cette influence sera le point central de l’étude et elle facilitera une comparaison indirecte entre le droit français et le droit roumain qui ont réagi de façon similaire et différente à la fois face à la primauté du droit européen. Ainsi, forte de sa tradition historique en matière de contentieux administratif, la France a été plus réticente à intégrer les règles européennes et a dû accepter quelques compromis qui ont sensiblement bouleversé ses coutumes, notamment en ce qui concerne les pouvoirs du juge. Le système juridique roumain, plus jeune et moins encré dans des règles traditionnelles, a été plus ouvert aux attraits du droit européen à tel point qu’il a innové en créant un organisme administratif-juridictionnel spécialisé, plus adapté aux exigences de rapidité et d’efficacité imposées par les directives européennes. L’évolution de sa jurisprudence riche mais changeante et sa comparaison avec la jurisprudence du juge administratif français nous permettra de nous interroger sur le compromis nécessaire entre la légalité et la sécurité juridique dans la passation des marchés publics. / The precontractual disputes within the public procurement procedures in France and Romania represents a comparative study whose object is to synthetically and pragmatically analyse the national French and Romanian mechanisms aimed to ensure the protection of the economic operators against the eventual infringements of the transparency and competition principles. The comparison between the two legislative frameworks is initiated by the presentation of the European law of the disputes within the public procurement procedures, which significantly influenced the national legal systems. This influence shall be the study’s central point, which shall facilitate an indirect comparison between the French and Romanian law that have both similarly and differently reacted to the priority of the European law.Thus, based on its powerful historical tradition in the field of the disputes of the public procurement law, France was more reluctant to integrate the European rules and had to admit some compromise which had sensibly disturbed its tradition, especially with respect to the powers of the judge.The Romanian legal system, younger and less pegged in the traditional rules, was more opened to the attractions of the European law to such a point that it innovated by creating a specialised administrative-jurisdictional organism, more adapted to the celerity and efficiency exigencies imposed by the European Directives. The evolution of its jurisprudence, rich but inconstant and its comparison to the jurisprudence of the French administrative judge will allow an interrogation of the necessary compromise between the legalism and the legal security in the awarding of the public contracts procedures.

The role of the Court of Justice of the European Union in the process of direct tax integration in the European Union (EU) has been widely discussed in the academic literature, while another important actor, the European Commission, has attracted much less attention. The Commission’s input is commonly perceived to be limited to the right of legislative initiative. This study questions such an oversimplified interpretation and draws a more nuanced picture of EU tax harmonisation by integrating an analysis of the complex regulatory approaches adopted by the Commission for the establishment and smooth functioning of the Internal Market. It is argued that the past decade brought a notable change in the Court-dominated pattern of direct tax integration. This change is apparent first in the evolution of enforcement strategies under Articles 258 and 260 TFEU; and second, in the increased reliance upon non-binding regulatory measures. Both developments have strengthened the role of the Commission, supplying it with more possibilities for influencing national direct tax systems, despite the reluctance of Member States to agree upon legislative harmonisation. Against this background, the procedural and substantive problems associated with these instruments require closer examination. The normative scope of this research covers the key procedural problems related to the infringement procedure and non-binding regulatory measures. The empirical component explores the Commission’s enforcement and coordination practices, drawing particular attention to two case studies: the tax treatment of losses in cross-border situations and exit taxation. Following the analysis of enforcement and coordination in the field of direct taxation, the study argues the need and proposes potential solutions for (i) the developing of a more comprehensive procedural framework for the infringement procedure and non-binding regulatory acts; (ii) the strengthening of accountability mechanisms; and (iii) the enhancing of the effectiveness of their application.

La Serbie n’est certainement pas ce que l’on pourrait désigner comme étant un Etat typique de l’Europe centrale et du Sud-Est. Alliée fidèle de la Russie et de la Chine, elle a subi les plus longues sanctions internationales en Europe et des bombardements de l’OTAN en 1999. Depuis la chute du régime de Milošević en 2000, l’ « enfant terrible » du continent a vocation à adhérer à l’Union européenne, or la tendance n’est clairement pas à l’élargissement. Face aux nombreuses crises (économique, migratoire et démocratique), l’UE parait impuissante à plusieurs égards. Symbole pendant longtemps du développement, de la paix et de la démocratie, elle doit faire face à une perte d’attractivité ces dix dernières années. Toutefois, malgré les doutes de part et d’autre, Bruxelles ne peut pas se permettre de ne pas tendre la main à la Serbie qui a une place centrale dans les Balkans, de par son poids démographique et sa position géostratégique. Le 1er mars 2012, la Serbie a officiellement obtenu son statut de candidat à l’UE. En signant l’accord d’association et de stabilisation, Belgrade s’est engagé à aligner sa législation sur l’acquis communautaire et donc à effectuer de nombreuses réformes. Or, sur fond d’acculturation et de déculturation juridique, des voix s’élèvent contre les réformes en chaîne dans le seul but d’intégrer l’institution européenne. L’un des objectifs de cette thèse est d’éclairer la nature et l’avancée de ces réformes à travers les critères politiques, définis lors du Conseil européen de Copenhague en 1993. Elle étudie les difficultés que la Serbie partage avec tous les Etats du Sud-Est de l’Europe et les difficultés qui lui sont propres, tout en questionnant sur la nécessité et les conséquences de ces changements. L’étude des négociations entre Bruxelles et Belgrade est aussi l’occasion d’apporter un éclairage sur le fonctionnement de l’institution européenne et de constater les limites de l’ambigüité constructive chère à l’UE. Finalement, le comportement de l’Union européenne à l’extérieur de ses frontières est symptomatique de son comportement à l’intérieur. / Serbia is certainly not a typical state of Central and Southeastern Europe. A loyal ally of Russia and China, it suffered the longest international sanctions in Europe and NATO bombings in 1999. Since the fall of the Milošević regime in 2000, the "enfant terrible" of the continent is destined to join the European Union. However, the trend is clearly not toward a enlargement. Facing multiple crises (economic, migratory and democratic), the EU seems powerless in many ways. Although the EU has been regarded as a symbol of development, peace and democracy, it has suffered a loss of attractiveness in the last ten years. However, despite doubts on both sides, Brussels cannot afford not to reach out to Serbia, which has a central position in the Balkans, because of its demographic weight and its geostrategic position. In March 2012 Serbia was granted EU candidate status. By signing the Stabilisation Agreement, Belgrade is committed to a gradual harmonization of legislation with the acquis of the European Communities and thus implement many reforms. However, in a context of legal acculturation and deculturation, some voices are rising to denounce a chain of reforms for the sole purpose of joining the European institution. One of our aims is to clarify the nature and progress of these reforms through the political criteria, defined at the Copenhagen European Council in 1993. We will hence study the difficulties that Serbia shares with all the states from Southeast Europe and its own problems, by questioning the necessity and consequences of these changes.The study of the negotiations between Brussels and Belgrade is also an opportunity to examine the functioning of the European institution and to note the limits of constructive ambiguity cherished by the EU. Finally, the behavior of the European Union outside its borders is symptomatic of its behavior inside.

Diploma thesis "Free Movement of Services - The focus on Eastern Enlargement of the European Union" describes the development of the internal market of services of the European Union in view of the recent developments to complete liberalization of this market through the adoption of Directive 2006/123/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of the 12th December 2006 on Services in the Internal Market. The Eastern Enlargement of ten new countries partly affected the whole development, because it caused the reestablishment of some protectionist measures in the form of the transitional periods. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the situation on the market of services in the European Union after the admission of at least eight countries from Central and Eastern Europe, and to understand each of these steps, which have lead some states to these protectionist measures. For a greater understanding of my diploma thesis, I tried to explain some important definitions and terms in the first part of the thesis, which can help the reader to easily understand the following sections of the essay. The other chapter presents, in brief, the historical genesis of the internal market of services in the European Union putting greater emphasis on the important milestones such as the founding treaties and...

Sveriges inträde i EU 1995 har lett till många förändringar i det svenska rättssystemet. Svenska domstolar har därmed fått en ny arbetssituation och nya skyldigheter. Flera förändringar har skett i svensk processrätt, och grundläggande EU-rättsliga principer som de om direkt effekt och EU-rättens företräde framför nationell rätt, har ställt de nationella domstolarna inför flera utmaningar. Den mest grundläggande skyldigheten de svenska domstolarna har gentemot EU är förpliktelsen att inhämta förhandsavgörande från EU-domstolen. Sistainstansrätterna är skyldiga att göra detta närhelst de är osäkra på tolkningen och/eller tillämpningen av en EU-rättslig bestämmelse. Detta är en långtgående förpliktelse som endast har två undantag: det första är i de fall EU-domstolen redan dömt i ett identiskt fall (acte éclairé); det andra är då den nationella domstolen anser att den EU-rättsliga bestämmelsen är tillräckligt klar och tydligt för att den självständigt ska kunna tillämpa den (acte clair). Dessa skyldigheter har lett till ett flertal problem för de svenska domstolarna. Sverige har fått skarp kritik från Kommissionen för sistainstansrätternas obenägenhet att inhämta förhandsavgörande. Huruvida EU borde ta hårdare tag mot medlemsstaternas nationella domstolar eller om kriterierna för när skyldigheten att inhämta förhandsavgörande borde mjukas upp diskuteras flitigt i nuläget. Det finns företeelser som talar för en utveckling åt både det ena och det andra hållet, vilket gör detta till ett väldigt spännande ämne att studera. / Since Sweden joined EU in 1995 many things has changed in the Swedish legal order. This has led to several new obligations for the Swedish courts. There have been a number of changes in Swedish law of procedure, and fundamental principles of law set down by EU, like the principle of direct effect of EU law and its precedence over national law, has presented many challenges before the national courts. The most fundamental obligation of the Swedish courts to EU is the duty to make a reference for a preliminary ruling to the European Court of Justice (ECJ). The courts of last instance are obligated to do this in any case where they are insecure of the appropriate application of EU-law. There are only two exceptions to this rule, namely when the ECJ already has ruled in an identical matter (acte éclairé) and in cases where the national court feels that the correct interpretation of the rule of law in question is obvious (acte clair). These obligations have lead to a number of problems for the Swedish courts. The Commission has criticized Sweden because of the national courts of last instance unwillingness to request preliminary rulings. Whether EU should toughen up and take action against the national courts disobedience or if the criteria for when an obligation to make a reference for a preliminary ruling should get more flexible is constantly discussed at this time. There are several things that speaks for both of these developments and that makes this a very interesting topic to study.

Although social policy was once perceived to be solely within the purview of the nation state, there has been a move toward a more European social policy. The European Court of Justice for the European Communities (‘Court of Justice’ or ‘Court’) determines the scope of European law and how it affects national welfare states. The court’s decisions will affect not only the national law of the member states with regard to social policy but also the direction of European social policy as it expands. However, the ECJ does not choose the policy areas in which it makes its decisions, but instead reacts to the preliminary references that are sent by the national courts of the Member States. These preliminary references from the Member States will set the Court’s agenda. Preliminary references are unevenly distributed across the Member States of the EU, and some Member States’ preliminary references are concentrated in particular policy areas. The jurisprudence of the Court, and consequently the social policy of the EU, could be steered by this uneven distribution. This thesis will answer the threshold question of why scholars of social policy should care about the Court of Justice, with a legal analysis of some key themes in the Court’s decisions in the area of social policy. It will then employ a mixed methods research design to explain the variation in rates of social policy preliminary references from the EU-15. First, a Time Series Cross-Section (TSCS) model will be used to test a series of hypotheses generated from the literature, and three novel hypotheses, in a dataset of social policy preliminary references from the EU-15 from 1996 to 2009. Next, a Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) (Ragin 2000) will group the variables that were found to be significant into sets of conditions, or ‘causal pathways,’ that lead to higher and lower rates of social policy preliminary references. Finally, two qualitative case studies will be conducted, in the UK and France. Analysis of documentary evidence and 25 expert interviews in the two member states and at the Court of Justice will further explain and illuminate the differing usage of preliminary reference process. The analysis of the mixed methods is integrated in the final stage. Implications for the direction of EU law related to social policy and the future development of European social policy will be considered in the concluding chapter.

Les nouvelles technologies et l’arrivée de l’Internet ont considérablement facilité les échanges transnationaux de données entre les entreprises publiques et/ou privées et également entre les personnes elles-mêmes. Cependant cette révolution numérique n’a pas été sans conséquences sur l’utilisation de nos données personnelles puisque cette abondance de données à la portée de tiers peut conduire à des atteintes : la commercialisation des données personnelles sans le consentement de l’intéressé par des entreprises ou encore la diffusion de sa photographie, de son nom, de son prénom à son insu en sont des exemples. La question qui vient alors se poser est en cas de litige, c’est-à-dire en cas d’atteintes au droit à la protection de nos données personnelles, présentant un ou des éléments d’extranéité, quels tribunaux pouvons-nous saisir ? Et quelle est la loi qui sera applicable ? Les droits québécois, de l’Union européenne, et suisse présentent différents critères de rattachement intéressants et adaptés à des situations prenant place hors et sur internet. Le droit commun de chacun de ces systèmes est envisagé, puis appliqué aux données personnelles dans le cadre d’une situation normale, et ensuite à internet si la situation diffère. La doctrine est également analysée dans la mesure où certaines solutions sont tout à fait intéressantes, et cela notamment sur internet. Un premier chapitre est consacré à la compétence internationale des tribunaux et aux critères de rattachement envisageables en droit commun à savoir notamment : le tribunal de l’État de survenance du préjudice, le tribunal de l’État de la faute ou encore le tribunal du domicile de la victime. Et ceux prévus ou non par la doctrine tels que l’accessibilité et le ciblage par exemple. Les conflits de lois sont étudiés dans un deuxième chapitre avec également l’énumération les différents facteurs de rattachement envisageables en droit commun comme la loi de l’État du préjudice, la loi de l’État de la faute ou encore la loi de l’État favorisant la victime. Et également ceux prévus par la doctrine : la loi de l’État « offrant la meilleure protection des données à caractère personnel » ou encore la loi de l’État où est établi le « maître du fichier ». Le tribunal le plus compétent au regard des principes généraux de droit international privé en cas d’atteintes au droit de la protection des données personnelles hors et sur internet est le tribunal de l’État du domicile de la victime. Et la meilleure loi applicable est la loi de l’État du domicile ou de la résidence principale du demandeur et du défendeur à l’instance, et dans le cas où la situation ne présente pas d’éléments d’extranéité, la meilleure loi est la loi favorisant la victime. / New technologies and the rising of the Internet boosted international data trade between public and/or private companies and even between individuals. However, this digital revolution is coming with its consequences: this exchange of data leads to personal data transactions (personal information or pictures for example) without users’ will. In case of violation of personal data, it is still unclear how to bring a case before the courts? Which Law is applicable? Quebec Law, European Union Law and Swiss Legislation show similarities in real life and on the internet. First, we consider the common law, then personal data real life and on the Internet if there are any differences. The conceptual doctrine is also analysed as it reveals new Internet specific issues. The first chapter tackles the international jurisdiction of the courts, potential criteria of ordinary law: the court where the damage occurs, the court where the conduct occurred or the court where the plaintiff lives; and those that are and are not covered by the doctrine as the accessibility and the targeting for example. Law conflicts and multiple potential criteria of ordinary law are studied in the second chapter. The State of the damage, the State of the misconduct and the State that benefit to the victim among others. The regulation that ensures the best personal data protection and the law that identifies the file master. From the international private law perspective, the most competent court is the one located in the State where the plaintiff is living when damage occurs. And the best regulation to follow is the he law of the country of domicile or the law of the law that promotes and protects the victim.

Parce que la singularité du sport s’est estompée au fur et à mesure qu’il développait sa dimension économique et que certains de ses acteurs adoptaient un comportement économique rationnel, le droit commun du travail et les normes forgées par l’Union européenne ne pouvaient que trouver application dans ce secteur d’activité. Des particularités du sport la conclusion est parfois tirée qu’une « exception » doit être reconnue et qu’un droit spécial du travail d’origine étatique doit être élaboré. Si leur pertinence n’est pas avérée, celle d’un droit professionnel largement bâti par ses acteurs via la négociation collective nationale ou européenne (dans les limites fixées par la norme étatique) l’est davantage. L’exclusion du droit commun du travail ou de celui de l’Union européenne n’est admissible que si des éléments objectifs et concrets la justifient. Elle ne peut légitimement reposer sur l’existence d’une « coutume ». Si les contraintes liées à l’aléa sportif, à l’équité sportive ou à la brièveté de la carrière de certains de ses acteurs peuvent en relever, encore faut-il les apprécier avec rigueur et mesurer strictement leurs effets sur les conditions d’emploi et de travail. Le particularisme résiduel d’une activité économique ne saurait justifier de l’exclure du droit commun du travail ou du droit de l’Union. L’application de certaines règles étatiques dans le sport pose des problèmes d’articulation normative, notamment en raison d’interférences avec des règles sportives. Mais de ce jeu-là, le droit commun du travail ou le droit de l’Union sort souvent vainqueur. Neutralisant les frontières tracées par le mouvement sportif, notamment entre le sport amateur et le sport professionnel, il obtient, via son juge, que ses impératifs l’emportent. / As sport specificity has been fading away while developing its economic dimension and adopting a rational economic behaviour, common labour laws and European law have inevitably applied to this sector of activity. Admitting sport special features sometimes leads to the conclusion that an “exception” has to be recognised and that special labour laws emanating from the state must be developed. While such a conclusion is not relevant, a professional law implemented by its actors through national or European collective bargaining (within the state legal frame set up) is, to a large extent, more appropriate. The exclusion of common labour laws or European law is acceptable only if justified by objective and concrete elements. It cannot legitimately be based on “customs”. If the constraints related to sports hazards, sporting fairness or sporting career shortness can be justified by such customs, it is necessary to rigorously appreciate and strictly measure their effects on employment and working conditions. The residual distinctive identity of an economic activity provides no justification for excluding it from the application of common labour laws or European law. The application of certain state rules and laws to sport reveals some normative articulation issues, in particular in relation to conflicts arising with sporting rules. However, in such a game, common labour laws and European law often win. Neutralizing the boundaries drawn by the sports community, in particular between amateur and professional sports, they succeed, through their judges, in having their requirements prevailing.