Infrastructure is one of the main parameters of economic growth and a country‘s competitiveness depends on the provision and maintenance of efficient and productive infrastructure assets. However, Nigeria, like most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest quantity and poorest quality of stocks of infrastructure assets in the world and this phenomenally poor infrastructure has remained an impediment to development in the country. Decades of sub-optimal investment, poor maintenance culture and the fact that the required infrastructure investments could not be accommodated within the available fiscal space as a result of budgetary constraints have all contributed to the Nigeria‘s infrastructure deficit. The immediate outcome of this however is that the available infrastructure assets across the Nigerian landscape are in decrepit state and absurdly inadequate. Besides, the present demand for basic infrastructure services has grown astronomically out-stripping the supply capacity of the existing ones. Closing the infrastructure financing gap will however require increased investment by private investors through creative financing in an enabling legal and financial environment. Outside the budgetary constraints, the absence of efficient maintenance and management of infrastructure assets and quality service delivery by the public sector are some of the reasons why procurement of public infrastructure stocks by government through the traditional approach is no longer plausible and hence, the general appeal of the public-private partnership framework. However, despite all the potentials, the public private partnership technique in Nigeria has not made an appreciable impact in closing the infrastructure gaps due to lack of access to long-term financing. It is against this back-drop that this study has sought to investigate how reforms of the legal and financial infrastructure could widen access to financing through innovative financial resource mobilization in scaling-up infrastructure development and service delivery to the teeming Nigeria population. Therefore, the central thesis of this study is that the inadequacy of appropriate laws and inefficient financial system are partly responsible for the huge financing gaps in the Nigeria‘s infrastructure market and with the legal and financial reforms, an enabling legal and financial environment that would open up space for resource mobilization through innovative financing techniques and sources will be created thereby widening access to long-term financing and increasing the appetite for private investment in the nation‘s public infrastructure assets and services. So, the overarching objective of this thesis is to explore how legal and financial system reforms can facilitate the development of financial models and instruments that can help mobilize financial resources to fund infrastructure and bridge the huge infrastructure financing gaps in Nigeria in a sustainable fashion. Given the infrastructure poverty that constrains economic growth and development in Nigeria, the outcomes of this proposed study would help inform the need for the legal and financial system reforms to unlock resources in addressing the problems of financing gaps in infrastructure projects development in Nigeria. Besides, such outcomes based on the Nigerian experience in infrastructure financing and development may be turned into valuable knowledge for policy –making and further research in Nigeria. Copyright / Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

Bank leaders spend an average of $727 to acquire a new customer and $287 to retain current customers. Grounded in customer relationship management and adaptation level theories, the purpose of this correlational study was to examine the relationship between service quality and customers' intention to switch banking service. An online survey was administered to 203 Jamaican banking customers. The target population was selected to identify if the Jamaican banks' customer service adhered to the customer satisfaction principles developed by Parasuraman. The independent variables were the 10 dimensions of service quality. Competence, courtesy, credibility, and access were removed because of multicollinearity issues. The dependent variable was the customers' intention. The results indicated a statistically significant relationship, F(6, 196) = 15.074, p < .001, between service quality and customer intent to switch banking services. The six predictors: tangibles (r = -.303, p < .005), reliability (r = -.253, p < .008), responsiveness (r = .35, p < .001), safety (r = -.433, p < .001), communication (r = -.184, p < .028), and empathy (r = -.357, p < .001), accounted the largest variance for (β = -.316) of the customers' intention of the Jamaican banking service. The implications for positive social change include the potential for bank leaders to develop customer-focused banking policy, increase customer satisfaction, and decrease costs related to losing customers, thus increasing profitability.

SAMMANFATTNING Titel: ESG-betyg och finansiell prestation Nivå: Examensarbete på grundnivå (kandidatexamen) i ämnet företagsekonomi Författare: Axel Almefors Sjögren och Martin Lötberg Handledare: Jan Svanberg  Datum: 2023 – Maj Syfte: Hållbarhetsredovisningens betydelse hos företag har ökat sedan dess introduktion år 1981. Detta har resulterat i att företagen bär ett större ansvar för sina anställda, leverantörer, intressenter, miljön och samhället. Samtidigt har den finansiella sektorn en väsentlig roll för att länders samhällsekonomier ska vara funktionella. Trots detta har tidigare studier börjat ifrågasätta hållbarhetsredovisningens värde på grund av tvetydiga resultat. Tidigare studier har bland annat funnit dessa tvetydiga resultat hos företag som är etablerade inom olika branscher, marknader, sektorer och länder. Utifrån dessa resultat har det blivit betydande att enbart undersöka en specifik sektor inom ett visst avgränsat geografiskt område, som är välutvecklat för att se hur utvecklingen skett. Studiens syfte blir således att undersöka om ESG-betyg korrelerar med finansiellt resultat inom den nordiska finansiella sektorn. Metod: Studien tillämpar en kvantitativ deduktiv ansats ifrån den positivistiskaforskningsfilosofin. Studiens insamlade data är av sekundär art och har inhämtats ifrån Thomson Reuters datastream Refinitiv Eikon. 40 finansiella företag ifrån Sverige, Norge, Danmark och Finland har analyserats för räkenskapsåren 2019-2022. Studiens data har sedan analyserats genom statistikprogrammet SPSS, där univariat, bivariat och multivariat analys har tillämpats.  Resultat och slutsats: Studiens resultat visar inga signifikanta samband mellan den oberoende variabeln ESG-betyg och de tre beroendevariablerna ROA, ROE och Tobin’s Q.Detta innebär att studien inte kan dra några generella slutsatser om sambanden mellan variablerna. Trots avsaknad signifikans visar regressionsanalyserna för ROA och ROE ett mer negativt samband och ett mer positivt samband för Tobin’s Q. Examensarbetets bidrag: Studien bidrar med en mer uppdaterad undersökning av sambandet mellan ESG-betyg och finansiella prestationer inom den nordiska finansiella sektorn. Utifrån detta bidrar studien med ökad kunskap gällande sambandet, vilket kan vara till intresse för potentiella investerare och intressenter. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: I och med att studien inte fann några signifikanta samband för räkenskapsåren 2019-2022 vore det intressant att undersöka sambandet på längre sikt. Detta för att se om företagens eventuella kapitalkostnader har reducerats, samt om företagen har återhämtat sig ifrån Covid-19 pandemin. Det vore även till intresse om framtida forskning tillämpar fler ESG-betyg än enbart Thomson Reuters för att få ett mer sammanhållet ESG-betyg.  Nyckelord: ESG-betyg, Finansiella prestationer, Marknadsvärde, Finanssektorn, Banksektorn, Nordiska länderna. / ABSTRACT Title: ESG-rating and financial performance Level: Student thesis, final assignment for Bachelor Degree in Business Administration Author: Axel Almefors Sjögren and Martin Lötberg Supervisor: Jan Svanberg Date: 2023 - May Aim: The importance of sustainability reporting among companies has increased since its introduction in 1981. This has resulted in companies taking greater responsibility for their employees, suppliers, stakeholders, the environment and society. At the same time, the financial sector plays an essential role in the functioning of national economies. Despite this, previous studies have started to question the value of sustainability reporting due to ambiguous results. Previous studies have found these ambiguous results among companies established in different industries, markets, sectors and countries. Based on these results, it has become significant to examine only a specific sector within a certain limited geographical area, which is well developed to see how the development has taken place. The purpose of the study is thus to investigate whether ESG ratings correlate with financial performance in the Nordic financial sector. Method: The study applies a quantitative deductive approach from the positivist research philosophy. The study's collected data is of a secondary nature and has been obtained from Thomson Reuters datastream Refinitiv Eikon. 40 financial companies from Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland have been analyzed for the financial years 2019-2022. The study's data has then been analyzed through the statistical program SPSS, where univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis has been applied. Results and conclusions: The results of the study show no significant correlation between the independent variable ESG rating and the three dependent variables ROA, ROE and Tobin's Q. This means that the study cannot draw general conclusions about the relationship between the variables. Despite the lack of significance, the regression analyses for ROA and ROE show a more negative relationship and a more positive relationship for Tobin's Q. Contribution of the thesis: The study provides a more updated examination of the relationship between ESG ratings and financial performance in the Nordic financial sector. Based on this, the study contributes to increased knowledge about the relationship, which may be of interest to potential investors and stakeholders. Suggestions for future research: As the study did not find any significant relationships for the financial years 2019-2022, it would be interesting to examine the relationship in the longer term. This is to see whether companies' potential capital costs have been reduced, and whether companies have recovered from the Covid-19 pandemic. It would also be of interest if future research applies more ESG ratings than just Thomson Reuters to get a more coherent ESG rating. Key words: ESG rating, Financial performance, Market value, Financial sector, Banking sector, Nordic countries

I en era där digital transformation snabbt omformar industrier är det avgörande att förstå hur chefer navigerar i en digital arbetsmiljö. Denna studie undersöker hur chefer i stora banker som Nordea, Handelsbanken och Sparbanken anpassar sig till den digitala arbetsplatsen och dess möjligheter och utmaningar. I denna studie beskrivs digitala verktyg, särskilt Teams, förbättra samarbete, produktivitet och effektivitet i en digital arbetsmiljö, medan utmaningar som att upprätthålla personliga relationer ökar. För att framgångsrikt navigera i den digitala transformationen krävs att både chefer och medarbetare är medvetna om utmaningarna och lär sig nödvändiga kompetenser för att effektivt arbetsleda i den digitala arbetsmiljön. Nyckelstrategier och kompetenser som framhålls för effektivt digitalt ledarskap inkluderar att skapa en digital kultur, kommunikationsfärdigheter, digital intelligens och digitala kompetenser. Genom att förstå och lyfta fram individuella perspektiv och erfarenheter ger denna studie en nyanserad förståelse av både möjligheterna och utmaningarna med digital transformation, vilket säkerställer att chefer och organisationer kan utnyttja fördelarna med denna nya digitala era. Titel: Att leda i en digital värld: En kvalitativ studie om användning av digitala verktyg och dess betydelse för chefer i finansbranschen.  Ämne: Kandidatuppsats i Företagsekonomi med inriktning Ledarskap, 15 hp.  Syfte: Studiens syfte är att beskriva och förstå hur chefer inom finansbranschen hanterar en digital arbetsmiljö genom användningen av digitala verktyg. Metod: Denna uppsats har utförts med en abduktiv ansats och en kvalitativ forskningsstrategi har använts i form av semistrukturerade intervjuer.  Resultat/slutsats: Resultaten visar att chefer inom finansbranschen, särskilt banksektorn, effektivt använder digitala verktyg för att öka effektiviteten och bygga samt bevara relationerna i denna digitala era. Den digitala transformationen medför dock sina egna utmaningar, såsom att upprätthålla personliga relationer och skapa en balans mellan digitala och fysiska interaktioner. Att hantera dessa utmaningar är avgörande för att skapa en enad och produktiv arbetsmiljö. Bidrag: Denna studie bidrar till förståelsen av digitalt ledarskap inom finansbranschen, särskilt banksektorn, genom att identifiera nyckelkompetenser som chefer kan använda för att hantera de olika utmaningarna i en digital miljö och utnyttja de digitala verktygen till deras fördel.  Nyckelord: Digitala verktyg, chefer, digital arbetsledning, digital arbetsmiljö, digital transformation, finanssektorn. / In an era where digital transformation is rapidly reshaping industries, it is crucial to understand how managers navigate through a digital work environment. This study examines how managers at major banks such as Nordea, Handelsbanken, and Sparbanken adapt to the digital workplace and its opportunities and challenges. Key findings reveal that digital tools, especially Teams, enhance collaboration, productivity and efficiency in a digital work environment but challenges such as maintaining personal relationships grows. Successful digital transformation requires that both managers and employees are aware of the challenges and learn essential skills to navigate the digital work environment. Key strategies and competencies highlighted for effective digital leadership include building a digital culture, communication skills, digital intelligence and digital competencies. By showcasing individual perspectives and experiences, this study offers a nuanced understanding of both the opportunities and challenges of digital transformation, ensuring that managers and organizations can utilize the benefits of this new digital era. Title: Leading in a Digital World: A qualitative study on the use of digital tools and their significance for managers in the financial industry. Subject: Bachelor’s thesis in Business Administration with a specialization in Leadership, 15 credits. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to describe and understand how managers within the finance industry manage a digital work environment through the use of digital tools. Method: This thesis has been conducted using an abductive approach, employing a qualitative research strategy in the form of semi-structured interviews. Result/conclusion: The findings reveal that managers within the financial industry, particularly, the banking sector, are effectively using digital tools to enhance efficiency and build and maintain relationships in this digital era. However, the digital transformation also brings its own different challenges, such as maintaining personal connections and achieving a balance between digital and face-to-face interactions. Addressing these challenges is crucial for creating a unified and productive work environment.  Contributions: This study contributes to the understanding of digital leadership in the financial sector, particularly, the banking sector by identifying key competencies that managers can use to manage the different challenges in a digital work environment and utilize digital tools to their advantage. Keywords: Digital tools, managers, digital work management, digital work environment, digital transformation, financial sector.

The growing reliance on digital services has led to an escalation in cyber risks and attacks targeting banks and financial institutions. Such cyber threats necessitate innovative solutions. But to achieve it, one needs to overcome the challenges of seeking reliable information on utilizing blockchain technology to combat cyber-attacks. Hence, this work aims to use a systematic literature review to study the potential of blockchain technology to mitigate cyber threats in the banking and financial sector as well as the advantages and challenges of blockchain technology. Blockchain provides heightened security, improv transaction processes, ensures transparency and privacy, optimizes operational performance, and reduces fraud. Despite its advantages, challenges like regulatory compliance, privacy concerns, and scalability need careful consideration. Prominent institutions like Bank of America, HSBC, and J.P. Morgan are actively investigating blockchain integration. To ensure wise choices regarding blockchain use in organizations with valuable data and assets, advisors and business leaders must fully grasp both the advantages and possible drawbacks of this technology. Armed with this information, financial institutions gain essential insights, steering them towards judicious choices concerning the integration and utilization of blockchain technology, thereby enhancing, and reinforcing their cybersecurity framework. / Den ökande användningen av digitala tjänster har resulterat i en ökning av cyberrisker och attacker riktade mot banker och finansinstitutioner. Cyberhot fortsätter att utmana säkerheten för finansiella institutioner, vilket kräver nyskapande lösningar. För att uppnå det måste man övervinna utmaningarna med att söka tillförlitlig information angående användningen av blockkedja teknik för att bekämpa cyberattacker. Därför syftar detta verk till att använda systematisk litteraturgenomgång för att utforska potentialen hos blockkedjeteknik för att mildra cyberhot inom bank- och finanssektorn, samt för- och nackdelar med teknologin. Blockkedja teknik erbjuder förhöjd säkerhet, optimerar transaktionsprocessen, säkerställer transparens och integritet, ökar operativ prestanda och minskar risken för bedrägeri. Trots dessa fördelar måste utmaningar som regeluppfyllelse, integritetsfrågor och skalbarhet hanteras med omsorg. Framstående institutioner som Bank of America, HSBC och J.P. Morgan undersöker aktivt integration av blockkedja teknik. För att säkerställa kloka beslut kring blockkedjeanvändning i organisationer med viktig information och tillgångar är det avgörande att rådgivare och företagsledare har en djup förståelse för både fördelar och möjliga nackdelar med teknologin. Med denna insikt i ryggen får finansinstitutioner värdefull vägledning när det gäller integration och användning av blockkedjeteknik, vilket stärker och förbättrar deras ramverk för cybersäkerhet.

In the thesis we perform analysis of systemic risk in the financial and energy sector in Europe. As the econometric tool for estimating dependencies across the subjects we employ factor copula model with GAS dynamics of Oh & Patton (2013b). We apply this model to daily CDS spreads. Based on the estimated results we perform Monte Carlo simulations in order to obtain future values of CDS spreads and measure probability of systemic events. We conclude that substantially higher systemic risk is present within the financial sector. We also find that the most systemic companies from both sectors come from Spain. JEL Classification C53, C55, C58, G17 Keywords Credit Default Swap, Energy Sector, Factor Copula, Financial Sector, Generalized Autore- gressive Score Model, Systemic Risk Author's e-mail matej.nevrla@gmail.com Supervisor's e-mail barunik@fsv.cuni.cz

Au cours des deux dernières décennies, des autorités chargées de la régulation de secteurs aussi divers que l'énergie, les postes, les communications électroniques, les transports, la banque, l'assurance et les valeurs mobilières se sont multipliées aussi bien à l'échelle nationale qu'à l'échelle de l'Union européenne. Contraint par le droit dérivé, ou libre, à des fins d'impartialité et de crédibilité, ce mouvement européen de création des autorités de régulation n'est toutefois pas sans poser un certain nombre de difficultés. Qu'il s'agisse de la structure des autorités, de l'étendue de leurs pouvoirs, de leur degré d'indépendance ou de leur quête de légitimité, les solutions retenues pour institutionnaliser la régulation varient fortement d'un Etat à l'autre, cette diversité nuisant grandement à l'unité de cette catégorie juridique. Malgré l'absence de régime uniforme, des finalités communes animent pourtant ces autorités : encadrer, contrôler, sécuriser et protéger. Au regard des différentes expériences nationales et européennes, cet état de fait amène alors à s'interroger sur la possibilité et l'opportunité de construire un modèle d'autorité de régulation dans les secteurs des services publics en réseaux et des finances dont les Etats et l'Union européenne pourraient s'inspirer / Over the past two decades, the authorities in charge of the regulation of sectors as diverse as Energy, Postal services, Electronic communications, Transports, Banking, Insurance and Securities have increased on a national level as well as on an European level. Imposed by Legislation, or free, in order to obtain impartiality and credibility, this European movement of creation of regulators can face some difficulties. Whatever the structure of these authorities, the extent of their powers, their degree of independence or their quest for Legitimacy, the solutions adopted to institutionalise regulation vary widely from a State to another, this diversity greatly affects the unity of this legal category. However and despite the absence of any harmonised framework, a common purpose animates these authorities which is to supervise, monitor, secure and protect. Due to different national and European experiences, this established fact raises issues about the possibility and also the opportunity of building a regulatory authority model in network utilities and in financial sectors that could guide the States as well as the European Union

Orientador: Carlos Eduardo Ferreira de Carvalho / Resumo: Esta dissertação tem como objetivo analisar a trajetória da política de informática brasileira no final do século XX. O estudo identifica os atores centrais no processo de tomada de decisão e explora as razões da ascensão e queda da indústria nacional de computadores. O objetivo cen-tral é entender os fatores que levaram à crise e à mudança no caminho da informática brasilei-ra através do enfoque sobre o papel dos segmentos financeiros no final da década de 1980. Através da reconstrução histórica, o estudo correlaciona três grandes eixos analíticos: (i) res-trições estruturais da economia mundial; (ii) dinâmica política interna em relação às pressões internacionais; e (iii) implicações políticas geradas pela redefinição das preferências do setor financeiro nacional no setor de informática. Em conclusão, foram apresentados os resultados do processo para o posicionamento do Brasil na economia mundial no limiar do século XXI. / Abstract: This dissertation aims to analyze the trajectory of Brazilian informatics policy during the late twentieth century. The study identifies central actors in the decision making process and explores the reasons for the rise and fall of the national computer industry. The central objective is to understand the factors that led to the crisis and the change in the Brazilian informatics path by focusing on the role of financial entrepreneurs in the late 1980s. Through historical reconstruction, the study correlates three major analytical axes: (i) structural constraints of the world economy; (ii) domestic political dynamics towards international pressures; and (iii) the political implications generated by the redefinition of national financial sector preferences in the informatics sector. In conclusion, the results for the positioning of Brazil in the world economy at the threshold of the 21st century were presented. / Resumen: Esta tesis objetiva analizar la trayectoria de la política de informática brasileña a finales del siglo XX. El estudio identifica a los actores centrales en el proceso de toma de decisiones y explora las razones del auge y la caída de la industria nacional de la computación. El objetivo central es comprender los factores que llevaron a la crisis y el cambio en el camino de la informática brasileña centrándose en el papel de los empresarios financieros a fines de los años ochenta. A través de la reconstrucción histórica, el estudio correlaciona tres ejes analíticos principales: (i) limitaciones estructurales de la economía mundial; (ii) dinámica política doméstica hacia presiones internacionales; y (iii) las implicaciones políticas generadas por la redefinición de las preferencias del sector financiero nacional en el sector de informática. En conclusión, se presentaron los resultados del posicionamiento de Brasil en la economía mundial en el umbral del siglo XXI. / Mestre

Since 1989, there has been a period of rapid change of the economies of the former Eastern bloc. Within a few years, the majority of the formerly centrally administered economies had begun restructuring their economic systems, including the privatisation. of formerly state-owned enterprises. This process developed differently in different countries, depending among other things on their historical traditions and the momentum of their social, political and economic transformations. This doctoral dissertation examines the privatisation of large-scale industrial enterprises in Slovakia prior to 1997. In particular the thesis analyses the changing political and institutional framework governing the process and method of privatisation; and how the governance of firms was affected by the new markets and ownership- and control-structures that were established. Special attention is paid to the role played by investment funds andinvestment-companies established as a consequence of voucher privatisation. The research problem is approached both from an aggregate national level and from the enterprise level. The thesis includes a number of case studies of enterprises in Slovakia that underwent privatisation, and of investment funds that emerged to take part in the process. In addition, two panel-data sets were constructed for the sake of statistical analysis. The study points to the drastic changes in privatisation policy and its enactment, under different governments. It leads to the conclusion that privatisation is a highly political process, whose economic effects cannot be separated from its distributional effects. This politicised nature of ownership reform is shown to have some negative side-effects with regard to the development of well-functioning governance structures. It is, for example, pointed to that the capital market, as it developed during the period of study, was highly non-transparent,characterised by high transaction costs and insider-trading. The study also documents an increasingly concentrated ownership structure of the Slovak industry and relates it to the changes in privatisation policy. In the final analysis attention is drawn to a recurring theme in the study, namely the issues related to the relative stability and durability of the institutional set-up. In many cases an insecurity about "the rules of the game" led to short-term incentives and opportunism on behalf of the economic and political agents.

In questa tesi si sostiene che il meccanismo di trasmissione della politica monetaria nasconde un canale di trasmissione del rischio, e che una politica monetaria espansiva non solo aumenta l’offerta di credito ma anche la propensione delle banche a prendere rischio. I modelli macroeconomici esistenti non sono adatti ad identificare questo meccahismo, visto che o non incorporano un settore bancario, oppure si concentrano sull’amplificazione finanziaria dopo una crisi piuttosto che sulla presa del rischio prima delle crisi. La tesi propone un semplice modello in cui il rischio di credito e di insolvenza e’ modellato endogenamente. Il modello mostra l’esistenza di un trade-off tra quantita’ e qualita’ del credito, il che puo’ avere importanti ripercussioni per la gestione della politica monetaria. Successivamente, la tesi sviluppa un paper empirico e di policy che studia la leva finanziaria delle banche. Si sostiene che le misure tradizionali della leva non possono mostrare un importante peggioramento della qualita’ del capitale delle banche prima della crisi del 2007. Si mostra che la qualita’ di tale capitale e’ progressivamente peggiorata prima della crisi, in particolar modo per le banche commerciali. Viene proposta una misura alternativa della leva finanziaria. / This dissertation argues that the transmission mechanism of monetary policy hides a risk taking channel, as loose monetary policy not only increases credit supply but also increases the propensity of banks to take risks. The existing macroeconomic models are ill-designed to identify the forces of this mechanism, as these models either do not have an explicit banking sector, or they focus on ex-post amplification mechanism rather than ex-ante bank risk taking. A simple model is developed, where credit and solvency risk is determined endogenously. The model shows that a trade-off exists between credit quality and credit quantity, and this trade off impacts on the effectiveness of monetary policy. Subsequently, the dissertation develops an empirical, policy paper that investigates banks leverage ratios. It is argued that traditional measures of leverage cannot detect an important decline in bank capital quality before the 2007 crisis. The dissertation shows that capital quality has declined progressively before the 2007 crisis, particularly for commercial banks. A new leverage ratio is proposed.