In this thesis, the terms of trade changes in Turkey since 1970 are analyzed. In the 1970s, Turkey faced strong terms of trade declines mainly due to two oil price shocks. Rapid diversification of Turkish exports into manufactures was instrumental in avoiding further declines in its terms of trade in the 1980s. However, the slow pace of the diversification into more skill- and technology-intensive manufactures in Turkey combined with the fallacy of composition problem in low-tech, labourintensive manufactures may pose a real danger to the prices of its exports. To the extent that in the long-term, the changes in terms of trade of a country are determined by the level of technology embodied in its exports, the concentration of Turkish exports in low-tech, labour-intensive manufactures may highlight the need for upgrading exports and establishing backward- and forward-linkages between industries to escape from the trap of terms of trade deterioration in the long-term.

By asking “What’s the problem?” this thesis addresses the crucial relationship between how strategic decision-makers formulate organizational problems and how the relevant actors attempt to solve these problems. This thesis holds that the creation of strategy can be conceived of as a decision-making process in which the strategists find, formulate and attempt to solve problems by choosing a set of means to reduce the perceived gap between the current state and the desired state of the organization. The thesis particularly explores and postulates what is refered to as the means-end fallacy in which end-problems are treated as means-problems. In effect the decision-makers take the ends of the organization for granted and only ask “How can we fix it?” instead of critically examining the purpose of the organization by asking “What should we fix and why?” The purpose of this thesis is twofold. First, it is to explore the dysfunctional consequences of the means-end fallacy in organizational decision-making and creation of strategy. Secondly, it is to illuminate the implications of applying the problem-formulation perspective in the creation of organizational strategies. To achieve these purposes the problem-formulation phenomenon is explored in five appended papers. Paper I discusses the paradox of profitability and responsibility and the means-end fallacy in the context of strategic theory and practice. Papers II, III and IV explore the relationship between how a problem is formulated and how different actors attempt to solve it. This is done with a comprehensive case study of the substance-abuse problem and the different organizational strategies that are implemented to resolve it. Paper V offers a concrete discussion of how inappropriate formulations of organizational problems undermine the intended ends, particularly with regard to the paradox of profitability and responsibility. This thesis argues that the strategic decision-makers need both to be more problem-oriented; that they should balance the different dimensions of the problem; and, thus, that they should recognize that decision-making is an art of balance. Moreover, it suggests that the problem-formulation perspective can contribute with an insight into the black box of strategy creation, and that this can be achieved by looking back or rewinding from the organization’s strategy to the initial formulation of the organization’s problems. As a mirror image it suggests that strategic decision-makers can avoid the means-end fallacy by forwarding from an appropriate formulation of the problem to a balanced strategy.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:12:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 5365.pdf: 1378751 bytes, checksum: b9c089fe63d5bbde24e4b76a396c2792 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-06-24 / Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais / We presuppose the existence of an Ethics in Skinner's work. It reveals, at least, three aspects: a Metaethics, a Normative and an Applied Ethics, which will be detailed in the present investigation. Before this, we will try to present chronologically the development of his ideas related to this topic. We conclude that the Skinnerian Ethics may be considered as a Naturalistic one. We attempt to describe it. Inside the Naturalistic Ethics, Skinner proposes something interesting, relevant, well founded, both in relation to a methaethics as well as in relation to the principles for an applied ethics. There are questionable points, one of them indicated in our last work, that is the attempt to traduce/reduce prescriptive aspects into descriptive ones, disregarding the difference between the causal determinants for tacts and those for mands. In this approach, we will essay a depth analysis, identifying what maybe is the core, or final, aspect of this tension: the defense of a technocracy, a huge problem found in the Skinnerian Ethics. What would be the limit for the technical authority? Prescriptions based on scientific knowledge are fully appropriate and acceptable, but what would be the limit for the derivation of mands from scientific evidence? Is there an alternative? Our thesis is this: Skinnerian Ethics is a kind of Naturalistic Ethics, and its main limitation is the defense of a technocracy. / Partimos da suposição de que há uma ética na obra de Skinner. Ela se apresenta em, pelo menos, três aspectos: o metaético, o normativo e o aplicado, os quais serão detalhados neste trabalho. Antes disso, porém, ao longo da obra de Skinner, tentaremos acompanhar cronologicamente o desenvolvimento de suas propostas em relação ao tema. Concluiremos que a Ética Skinneriana pode ser classificada como naturalista. Buscaremos descrevê-la. Dentro do Naturalismo Ético, Skinner nos traz uma proposta interessante, relevante, bem fundamentada, tanto em relação a uma metaética, quanto aos princípios para uma ética aplicada. Há pontos questionáveis, um deles constatado em trabalho anterior, que diz respeito à tentativa de traduzir/reduzir aspectos prescritivos aos descritivos, desconsiderando-se as diferenças entre os determinantes dos tatos e aqueles dos mandos. No presente trabalho, aprofundaremos a questão, identificando o que talvez seja o aspecto central, ou final, dessa tensão: a defesa da tecnocracia, um grande problema encontrado na Ética Skinneriana. Qual seria, então, o limite da autoridade técnica? Prescrições fundamentadas em conhecimentos científicos são plenamente cabíveis e aceitáveis, mas qual seria o limite da derivação de imperativos a partir de evidências científicas? Há alternativas? Nossa tese, portanto, é esta: a Ética Skinneriana é uma variante do Naturalismo Ético, sendo sua principal limitação a defesa da tecnocracia.

Humans repeatedly commit the so called “conjunction fallacy”, erroneously judging the probability of two events occurring together as higher than the probability of one of the events. Certain hints have been shown to mitigate this tendency. The present thesis investigated the relations between three psychological factors and performance on conjunction tasks after reading such a hint. The factors represent the understanding of probability and statistics (statistical numeracy), the ability to resist intuitive but incorrect conclusions (cognitive reflection), and the willingness to engage in, and enjoyment of, analytical thinking (need-for-cognition). Participants (n = 50) answered 30 short conjunction tasks and three psychological scales. A bimodal response distribution motivated dichotomization of performance scores. Need-for-cognition was significantly, positively correlated with performance, while numeracy and cognitive reflection were not. The results suggest that the willingness to engage in, and enjoyment of, analytical thinking plays an important role for the capacity to avoid the conjunction fallacy after taking a hint. The hint further seems to neutralize differences in performance otherwise predicted by statistical numeracy and cognitive reflection. / Människor begår ofta det så kallade ”konjuktionsfelslutet”, genom att felaktigt bedöma sannolikheten för sammanträffandet av två händelser som större än sannolikheten för en av händelserna. Vissa typer av ledtrådar har visat sig mildra denna tendens. Denna uppsats undersökte relationerna mellan tre psykologiska faktorer och prestation på konjunktionsuppgifter efter att ha läst en sådan ledtråd. Faktorerna motsvarade förståelsen för sannolikhet och statistik (statistisk räknefärdighet, eng., statistical numeracy), förmågan att motstå intuitiva men felaktiga slutsatser, (kognitiv reflektion, eng., cognitive reflection), samt viljan och lusten till analytiskt tänkande (behov-av-tänkande, eng., need-for-cognition). Deltagare (n = 50) besvarade 30 korta konjunktionsuppgifter och tre psykologiska mätskalor. En bimodal svarsfördelning motiverade dikotomisering av resultaten. Behov-av-tänkande var signifikant, positivt korrelerat med prestation, vilket varken räknefärdighet eller kognitiv reflektion var. Resultaten tyder på att viljan och lusten till analytiskt tänkande spelar en viktig roll i förmågan att undvika konjunktionsfelslutet efter att ha fått en ledtråd. Ledtråden verkar också neutralisera skillnader i prestation som annars uppstår på grund av räknefärdighet och kognitiv reflektion.

La réduction de l’usage des dispositifs de sortie anticipée et l’augmentation de la durée de vie à l’emploi se sont imposées comme de réels objectifs. Plusieurs réformes – implémentés, notamment, de façon non coercitive au niveau Européen – sont venues quantifier de tels objectifs. L’augmentation du taux d’emploi des travailleurs âgés de plus de 55 ans et l’augmentation de l’âge effectif moyen de la retraite sont tant d’outils quantitatifs qui servent une même finalité :l’augmentation de la participation au marché du travail des travailleurs âgés. L’une des résultantes de ces réformes est le développement, notamment en Belgique, de mécanismes de sortie partielle de l’activitié. En conséquence, les fins d’activité professionnelles prennent désormais des formes plus complexes, faites d’imbrications de différents statuts dans et en dehors du marché du travail. La thèse – qui croise une analyse des évolutions sociales de l’emploi des travailleurs âgés et une analyse longitudinale des parcours professionnels – est divisée en trois chapitres qui ont trait successivement aux indicateurs utilisés pour quantifier la sortie anticipée de l’emploi, au développement des instruments de réduction du temps de travail en fin de carrière et à l’impact des réductions du temps de travail en fin de carrière sur l’emploi des jeunes. Le premier chapitre prend appui sur une analyse macrosociologique des dynamiques du marché du travail. En mettant l’accent sur la sortie anticipée de l’activité professionnelle en tant que problème social, nous interrogeons, d’une part, l’écart temporel qui existe entre l’âge de la sortie de l’activité professionnelle et l’âge de la retraite et, d’autre part, les différents mécanismes qui sont utilisés en Europe pour sortir prématurément du marché du travail. La première partie repose principalement sur une analyse détaillée de l’indicateur « âge effectif moyen de la retraite » fourni par l’OCDE. Une analyse longitudinale (report de statut d’une année à l’autre) est également réalisée. La seconde partie, quant à elle, utilise une classification hiérarchique et évalue l’évolution des résultats des politiques publiques en matière d’usage de statuts entre 2000 et 2010. Le second chapitre analyse les politiques de réduction du temps de travail destinées aux travailleurs âgés. Plusieurs aspects sont étudiés. La première partie prolonge l’analyse comparative qui a été développée dans le premier chapitre en comparant l’évolution des politiques publiques en matière de transitions des individus d’un statut vers un autre (emploi, chômage et inactivité). La seconde partie met l’accent sur le développement récent de « statuts composites » – terme que nous utilisons ici pour décrire la combinaison d’une position sur le marché de l’emploi et de prestations sociales. Enfin, les troisième et quatrième parties s’intéressent à l’évolution législative et empirique de deux dispositifs :le crédit-temps (en Belgique) et le cumul emploi-retraite (en France et en Belgique). Enfin, le troisième chapitre propose une analyse de la notion de partage d’emploi entre générations. Une première partie étudie l’impact des variations économiques sur l’emploi des jeunes générations et des travailleurs âgés dans les pays européens. L’analyse, descriptive, prend appui sur trois notions (synchronie, hystérèse et dyschronie) qui décrivent les impacts différenciés des variations économiques sur les transitions professionnelles. La seconde partie analyse, pour le cas de la Belgique, le phénomène de partage d’emploi entre générations et la notion de « lump of labour fallacy ». Sur base des données issues du Datawarehouse Marché du Travail et Protection Sociale, deux régressions logistiques sont réalisées afin d’évaluer l’impact de l’usage des différents statuts composites utilisés par les travailleurs âgés sur l’emploi des jeunes. / The reduction in the use of early retirement schemes, and, consequently, the increase in the duration of the working life have emerged as real targets. Several non-coercive measuring instruments have been implemented by European public policy for quantifying these targets. For instance, the increase in the employment rate of workers aged over 55 years old and the increase of the average effective age of retirement are quantitative tools used of achieving the same purpose: increasing the participation in the labour market of the older workers. One of the effects of these reforms has been the development of part-time early retirement arrangements, particularly in Belgium. Consequently, ends of professional careers take more complex forms characterized by interconnections of different statuses within and outside the labour market. The thesis – crossing an analysis of the evolution of the employment participation of older workers and a longitudinal analysis of professional careers – is divided into three chapters relating successively to indicators used for quantifying early withdrawals, the development of instruments aiming at reducing working time at the end of the career and the impact of working time arrangements at the end of the career on youth employment. The first chapter is based on a macro-sociological analysis of the dynamics of the labour market. First, by focusing on the early withdrawal of the older workers as a social problem, the thesis analyses the time gap between the withdrawal age and the compulsory retirement age. Second, the large set of arrangement used in Europe for leaving prematurely the labour market is examined. The first part is mainly based on a detailed analysis of the "average effective retirement age" indicator provided by the OECD. A longitudinal analysis (report of statuses from one year to the next) is also performed. The second part uses a hierarchical classification (clustering) and evaluates the evolution of the public policies effects between 2000 and 2010.The second chapter focuses on the working time reduction policies dedicated to older workers. Several aspects are reviewed. The first part extends the analysis developed in the first chapter by comparing the evolution of public policies on individual’s transitions from one status to another. The second part focuses on the recent development of "composite statutes" – a notion used to describe the combination of a position on the labour market and social benefits. Finally, the third and fourth parts focus on the legislative and the empirical evolution of two specific arrangements: the time credit (Belgium) and the combination of work and employment (France and Belgium).The third chapter provides an analysis of social rapports between generations on the labour market. The first part examines the impact of economic changes on the employment of younger generations and older workers in European countries. The analysis is based on three economic concepts – synchrony, hysteresis and dyschrony – describing the differentiated impact of economic changes on employment transitions. The second part, focusing on Belgium, examines the phenomenon of job sharing between generations and the concept of "lump of labour fallacy". Based on data derived from the Datawarehouse Labour Market and Social Protection, two logistic regressions are performed in order to evaluate the impact of the different composite statutes dedicated to older workers on the youth employment rate. / Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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Previous research on human judgment and decision making has demonstrated systematic and predictable biases of judgment in experimental settings. One example of this is the tendency to intuitively violate the conjunction rule - a simple rule of probability. This was well illustrated in the famous Linda-problem. (Tversky & Kahneman, 1983). According to the dual-process theory of reasoning, (Kahneman, 2011) reasoning fallacies such as the conjunction fallacy occurs when people fail to use analytic reasoning and instead overly rely on their intuition. The dual process theory proposes that cognitive processes underlying our intuitive impulses and our conscious reasoning constitutes two different modes in the mind –system 1 and system 2- and that the intuitive system 1 are not able to compute probabilities. Furthermore, it is assumed that processes that are labeled system 1 are fast whereas system 2 are thought to be slow. We tested these time course assumptions of dual process theory in a within-subject design by comparing response time latencies between conjunction fallacy judgments and accurate probability judgments. The results showed that inducing accurate responding did not result in delayed response latency. This indicates that making accurate probability judgments does not require more processing time which goes against what would be expected by the dual-process framework. / Tidigare forskning om mänskligt beslutsfattande och bedömningar har i experiment påvisat systematiska och förutsägbara bias. Ett exempel på detta är tendensen att intuitivt gå emot konjuktionsregeln- en enkel regel gällande sannolikhet. Detta illustrerades väl i det berömda Linda- problemet (Tversky & Kahneman, 1983). Enligt två-systemsteorin (Kahneman, 2011) om problemlösning, uppstår bedömningsfel såsom konjuktionsfelet när människor inte använder sig av analytiskt tänkande och istället förlitar sig för mycket på sin intuition. Två-systemsteorin menar att de kognitiva processer som ligger till grund för våra intuitiva impulser och vårt medvetna resonerande utgör två olika aktörer i vårt tänkande- system 1 och system 2- och att det intuitiva system 1 inte kan beräkna sannolikheter. Processer som betecknas som tillhörande system 1 är enligt två-systemsteorin snabba medan system 2 föreställs vara ett långsamt system. I denna studie testades antagandet om tidsåtgång för de två systemen i en inomgruppsdesign genom att jämföra responstider mellan bedömningar där konjunktionsfelet begåtts och bedömningar där det inte begåtts. Resultaten visar att korrekta sannolikhetsbedömningar inte resulterar i långsammare responstider. Detta indikerar att det inte tycks vara mer tidskrävande att göra riktiga sannolikhetsbedömningar, vilket motsäger två-systemsteorins antagande om snabbt och långsamt processande.

Cette présentation examinera le degré de certitude qui peut être atteint dans le domaine scientifique. Le paradigme scientifique est composé de deux extrêmes; causalité et déterminisme d'un côté et probabilité et indéterminisme de l'autre. En faisant appel aux notions de Hume de la ressemblance et la contiguïté, on peut rejeter la causalité ou le hasard objectif comme étant sans fondement et non empirique. Le problème de l'induction et le sophisme du parieur proviennent d’une même source cognitif / heuristique. Hume décrit ces tendances mentales dans ses essais « Of Probability » et « Of the Idea of Necessary Connexion ». Une discussion sur la conception de la probabilité de Hume ainsi que d'autres interprétations de probabilité sera nécessaire. Même si la science glorifie et idéalise la causalité, la probabilité peut être comprise comme étant tout aussi cohérente. Une attitude probabiliste, même si elle est également non empirique, pourrait être plus avantageuse que le vieux paradigme de la causalité. / This presentation examines the degree of certainty which can be attained in science. The scientific paradigm is composed of two extremes; causality and determinism on one end and probability and indeterminism on the other. By appealing to Hume’s notions of resemblance and contiguity, we can dismiss any claim of objective causality or chance as being ungrounded for lack of an empirical basis. The problem of induction as well as the gambler’s fallacy stem from the same cognitive/heuristic source. Hume describes these mental tendencies in his essays ‘Of Probability’ and ‘Of the Idea of Necessary Connexion’. This will necessitate a discussion of Hume’s notion of probability, as well as other interpretations of probability. While science has glorified and romanticized causality, probability can be understood as being just as consistent. While a probabilistic stance is as non-empirical as a causal stance, it will be remarked that we may benefit from a paradigmatic switch to probabilism.

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