Cette étude de cas, composée de trois articles, examine les diverses sources d’explication de l’écart salarial selon le genre chez les professeurs d’une grande université de recherche canadienne. Le premier article analyse les écarts selon le genre sur les primes “de marché” à partir de données d’un sondage réalisé auprès des professeurs en 2002. Une analyse des correspondances donne une solution à deux facteurs dans laquelle le second facteur oppose clairement les professeurs qui ont reçu une prime à ceux qui n’en n’ont pas reçue. Le genre est fortement associé à ce facteur, la catégorie “femme” se retrouvant du côté de l’axe associé à l’absence de primes de marché. Les résultats de la régression logistique confirment que le secteur d’activité, la fréquence des contrats de recherche, la valorisation du salaire ainsi que le rang combiné à l’ancienneté sont reliés à la présence de primes de marché, tel que proposé par les hypothèses. Toutefois, même après avoir contrôlé pour ces relations, les femmes sont toujours près de trois fois moins susceptibles de s’être vu attribuer des primes de marché que leurs homologues masculins. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats suggèrent que dans un contexte où les salaires sont déterminés par convention collective, la réindividualisation du processus de détermination des salaires — en particulier le versement de primes de marché aux professeurs d’université — peut favoriser la réapparition d’écarts de salaire selon le genre. Le second article est réalisé à partir de données administratives portant sur les années 1997 à 2006. Les contributions respectives de quatre composantes de la rémunération à l’écart salarial selon le genre y sont analysées, soit le salaire de base, l’accès au rang de professeur titulaire, l’accès aux primes de marché et chaires de recherche du Canada, de même que les montants reçus. Les composantes varient quant à leur degré de formalisation. Ceci permet de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’ampleur de l’écart salarial selon le genre varie en fonction du degré de formalisation des composantes salariales. Nous déterminons également dans quelle mesure l’écart selon le genre sur les diverses composantes de la rémunération varie en fonction de la représentation relative des femmes professeurs au sein des unités. Les résultats démontrent l’existence de variations dans l’ampleur des différences selon le genre en fonction du degré de formalisation des pratiques de rémunération. Qui plus est, après contrôles, la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont fortement représentées. Le dernier article examine les mécanismes pouvant mener à un écart selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché chez les professeurs de l’institution. Les processus d’attribution de ces suppléments salariaux sont examinés à partir d’entretiens réalisés avec 17 administrateurs à tous les niveaux hiérarchiques de l’institution et dans une diversité d’unités académiques. Les résultats suggèrent que les différences selon le genre pourraient être liées à des caractéristiques spécifiques du processus d’attribution et à une distribution inégale des primes aux unités à forte représentation féminine. De façon générale, les résultats démontrent que l’écart de rémunération selon le genre chez les professeurs de cette université n’est pas totalement expliqué par des différences dans les caractéristiques individuelles des hommes et femmes. L’analyse révèle que l’écart réside dans des différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché et aux chaires de recherches du Canada et, dans une moindre mesure, au rang de professeur titulaire. Aucune différence n’est observée sur le salaire de base et le montant des primes salariales reçues, que celles-ci soient dites de “marché” ou associées à une chaire de recherche du Canada. Qui plus est, on constate que la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont le mieux représentées. L’accès différencié selon le genre aux primes de marché qui est observé pourrait être lié à certains processus organisationnels qui limitent les probabilités d’octrois à des femmes. Les femmes pourraient être particulièrement désavantagées dans ce système d’octroi, pour plusieurs raisons. L’existence de différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait aux dispositions ou habiletés des individus à négocier leur salaire est évoquée et supposée par certains administrateurs. Un accès limité aux informations concernant la politique de primes pourrait réduire la probabilité que des femmes tentent d’obtenir ces suppléments salariaux. Les directeurs d’unités, qui sont en majorité des hommes, pourraient être biaisées en faveur des professeurs masculins dans leurs évaluations s’ils tendent à favoriser ceux qui leurs ressemblent. Il est également possible que les directeurs d’unités où les femmes sont les mieux représentées n’aient pas reçu d’information sur les primes de marché ou que des traditions disciplinaires les aient rendu réticents à demander des primes. / This case study examines the various sources of explanation of the gender pay gap among professors at a large Canadian research university. It comprises three articles. The first article analyzes gender differences in “market supplements” using data from a survey of professors conducted in 2000. The correspondence analysis produces a two-factor solution in which the second axis clearly opposes faculty who receive market supplement to those who do not. Gender is strongly related to this factor, with the female category on the side of the axis associated with the absence of market supplement. The results of the logistic regression confirm that field of specialization, frequency of external research contracts, faculty members’ values and attitudes towards remuneration and seniority within rank are all related to the award of market supplements, as hypothesized. However, women were still almost three times less likely than men to have been awarded market supplements after controlling for these relationships. Overall, the results suggest that within a collective bargaining context, reindividualization of the pay determination process — notably, the payment of market supplements to faculty — may reopen pay differences by gender. The second article uses administrative data for years 1997 to 2006. We estimate the respective contributions to the gender pay gap of four pay components: base pay, promotion to full professor, access to market supplements and Canada research chairs as well as the amounts received. These are characterized by various levels of formalization. This allows testing the hypothesis that the magnitude of gender differences in pay varies with the extent of formalization of pay components. We also determine how gender differences on each pay component vary according to the relative representation of female faculty members within units. We find some evidence that the magnitude of gender differences varies with the degree of formalization in remuneration practices. We also find that, other things being equal, pay is lower in units with a high proportion of females. The last article examines the mechanisms that may lead to gender differences in access to ‘market supplements’ among professors. The process of awarding pay in excess for the amounts provided for in a collective agreement are examined based on interviews with 17 administrators at all hierarchical levels and in various academic units. Results suggest that gender differences in the likelihood of receiving an award may be related to specific features of the award process and to an unequal distribution of awards to units with strong female representation. Overall, the results show that the gender pay gap among professors at this university is not entirely accounted for by differences in the individual characteristics of male and female professors. The analysis reveals that the pay gap resides in gender differences in access to market supplements and Canada research chairs (CRCs) and, to a lesser extent, to the full professor rank. No difference is found on base pay or on the amounts of pay supplements received, whether they are “market” premiums or supplements associated to a CRC. Furthermore, pay tends to be lower in units where female representation is highest. The observed gender differences in access to market supplements could be due to organizational processes that reduce the likelihood of awards to women. There are several reasons why female faculty members are particularly disadvantaged in this award system. Gender differences in the propensity or ability to negotiate are alleged (and assumed) by some of those negotiating. More limited access to information about supplements reduces the likelihood that women will pursue them. Chairpersons, who are mostly males, may allow gender bias to influence their evaluations of faculty members, perhaps because they tend to favor others like themselves. It may also be that chairpersons from the units where women are better represented do not have access to information about market supplements or that disciplinary traditions make them reluctant to request them.

Syftet med studien är att genom en semiotiskt bildanalys och genusvetenskaplig ansats undersöka hur det kroppspositivistiska bikiniföretaget Elsa and Rose Swimwear framställer kvinnan i sin marknadsföring på Instagram. Då tidigare forskning kring kvinnlig framställning i reklam till stor del fokuserat på endast kroppsstorlek och attraktivitet har vi valt att inkludera analysverktyg som pose, gaze, samt etnicitet och hud. Detta för att bidra med ny kunskap om kvinnlig framställning inom reklam och sociala medier. Genom att studera sju bilder, som alla publicerades under 2018, på Elsa and Rose Swimwears Instagram-konto har vi undersökt hur kvinnan framställs, samt om och hur denna framställning av kvinnan skiljer sig från den normativa kvinnan som vanligtvis syns i media. Studiens resultat visar att ingen av de sju bilder som ingick i analysen demonstrerar “den perfekta kvinnan”, som vanligtvis syns i medier och reklamsammanhang. Ingen av kvinnorna i bilderna innehar alltså alla normativa attribut, som till exempel både en extremt smal kropp och perfekt hud. Bildernas huvudsakliga syfte är således inte att marknadsföra sina produkter med hjälp av normativa kvinnokroppar, utan att genom sin marknadsföring även sprida budskap om att alla kroppar är värda att synas i media, oavsett storlek, hudton och utseendemässiga attribut. Slutligen sänder kvinnorna huvudsakligen signaler av självsäkerhet och kontroll genom sina blickar och poseringar, vilket demonstrerar deras medvetenhet om åskådaren. Resultatet i den här studien visar således att det kroppspositivistiska bikiniföretaget Elsa and Rose Swimwears huvudsakliga framställning av kvinnan skiljer sig från den traditionella och normativa kvinnan som vanligtvis syns i media. / The purpose of the study is to, through semiotic analysis and gender theory, investigate in which way the body-positive bikini company Elsa and Rose Swimwear is representing women in their Instagram marketing. Since earlier research on female representation in advertising is largely focused on body size and attractiveness, we have in this study chosen to include analysis tools such as pose, gaze, as well as ethnicity and skin. This will contribute to new knowledge on female representation in commercials and on social media. By studying seven images, all posted in 2018, on Elsa and Rose Swimwear's Instagram account, we have investigated how women are represented as well as whether and how this representation differs from the normative female image usually seen in media. The result of the study shows that none of the seven images included in the analysis display "the perfect woman" that is usually seen in media and advertising. None of the women in the pictures possess all the normative attributes, such as both an extremely thin body and perfect skin. We find that the main purpose of the images is not to for the company to market their products with normative women's bodies, but rather market their products while spreading a message saying that all bodies are worth being seen in media, regardless of size, skin tone and appearance. Finally, the women in the pictures communicate self-confidence and control through their gazes and poses, and therefore demonstrating their consciousness of the observer. The result of the study shows that the body-positive bikini company Elsa and Rose Swimwear's main representation of women differs from the traditional and normative female image.

Cette étude de cas, composée de trois articles, examine les diverses sources d’explication de l’écart salarial selon le genre chez les professeurs d’une grande université de recherche canadienne. Le premier article analyse les écarts selon le genre sur les primes “de marché” à partir de données d’un sondage réalisé auprès des professeurs en 2002. Une analyse des correspondances donne une solution à deux facteurs dans laquelle le second facteur oppose clairement les professeurs qui ont reçu une prime à ceux qui n’en n’ont pas reçue. Le genre est fortement associé à ce facteur, la catégorie “femme” se retrouvant du côté de l’axe associé à l’absence de primes de marché. Les résultats de la régression logistique confirment que le secteur d’activité, la fréquence des contrats de recherche, la valorisation du salaire ainsi que le rang combiné à l’ancienneté sont reliés à la présence de primes de marché, tel que proposé par les hypothèses. Toutefois, même après avoir contrôlé pour ces relations, les femmes sont toujours près de trois fois moins susceptibles de s’être vu attribuer des primes de marché que leurs homologues masculins. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats suggèrent que dans un contexte où les salaires sont déterminés par convention collective, la réindividualisation du processus de détermination des salaires — en particulier le versement de primes de marché aux professeurs d’université — peut favoriser la réapparition d’écarts de salaire selon le genre. Le second article est réalisé à partir de données administratives portant sur les années 1997 à 2006. Les contributions respectives de quatre composantes de la rémunération à l’écart salarial selon le genre y sont analysées, soit le salaire de base, l’accès au rang de professeur titulaire, l’accès aux primes de marché et chaires de recherche du Canada, de même que les montants reçus. Les composantes varient quant à leur degré de formalisation. Ceci permet de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’ampleur de l’écart salarial selon le genre varie en fonction du degré de formalisation des composantes salariales. Nous déterminons également dans quelle mesure l’écart selon le genre sur les diverses composantes de la rémunération varie en fonction de la représentation relative des femmes professeurs au sein des unités. Les résultats démontrent l’existence de variations dans l’ampleur des différences selon le genre en fonction du degré de formalisation des pratiques de rémunération. Qui plus est, après contrôles, la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont fortement représentées. Le dernier article examine les mécanismes pouvant mener à un écart selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché chez les professeurs de l’institution. Les processus d’attribution de ces suppléments salariaux sont examinés à partir d’entretiens réalisés avec 17 administrateurs à tous les niveaux hiérarchiques de l’institution et dans une diversité d’unités académiques. Les résultats suggèrent que les différences selon le genre pourraient être liées à des caractéristiques spécifiques du processus d’attribution et à une distribution inégale des primes aux unités à forte représentation féminine. De façon générale, les résultats démontrent que l’écart de rémunération selon le genre chez les professeurs de cette université n’est pas totalement expliqué par des différences dans les caractéristiques individuelles des hommes et femmes. L’analyse révèle que l’écart réside dans des différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché et aux chaires de recherches du Canada et, dans une moindre mesure, au rang de professeur titulaire. Aucune différence n’est observée sur le salaire de base et le montant des primes salariales reçues, que celles-ci soient dites de “marché” ou associées à une chaire de recherche du Canada. Qui plus est, on constate que la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont le mieux représentées. L’accès différencié selon le genre aux primes de marché qui est observé pourrait être lié à certains processus organisationnels qui limitent les probabilités d’octrois à des femmes. Les femmes pourraient être particulièrement désavantagées dans ce système d’octroi, pour plusieurs raisons. L’existence de différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait aux dispositions ou habiletés des individus à négocier leur salaire est évoquée et supposée par certains administrateurs. Un accès limité aux informations concernant la politique de primes pourrait réduire la probabilité que des femmes tentent d’obtenir ces suppléments salariaux. Les directeurs d’unités, qui sont en majorité des hommes, pourraient être biaisées en faveur des professeurs masculins dans leurs évaluations s’ils tendent à favoriser ceux qui leurs ressemblent. Il est également possible que les directeurs d’unités où les femmes sont les mieux représentées n’aient pas reçu d’information sur les primes de marché ou que des traditions disciplinaires les aient rendu réticents à demander des primes. / This case study examines the various sources of explanation of the gender pay gap among professors at a large Canadian research university. It comprises three articles. The first article analyzes gender differences in “market supplements” using data from a survey of professors conducted in 2000. The correspondence analysis produces a two-factor solution in which the second axis clearly opposes faculty who receive market supplement to those who do not. Gender is strongly related to this factor, with the female category on the side of the axis associated with the absence of market supplement. The results of the logistic regression confirm that field of specialization, frequency of external research contracts, faculty members’ values and attitudes towards remuneration and seniority within rank are all related to the award of market supplements, as hypothesized. However, women were still almost three times less likely than men to have been awarded market supplements after controlling for these relationships. Overall, the results suggest that within a collective bargaining context, reindividualization of the pay determination process — notably, the payment of market supplements to faculty — may reopen pay differences by gender. The second article uses administrative data for years 1997 to 2006. We estimate the respective contributions to the gender pay gap of four pay components: base pay, promotion to full professor, access to market supplements and Canada research chairs as well as the amounts received. These are characterized by various levels of formalization. This allows testing the hypothesis that the magnitude of gender differences in pay varies with the extent of formalization of pay components. We also determine how gender differences on each pay component vary according to the relative representation of female faculty members within units. We find some evidence that the magnitude of gender differences varies with the degree of formalization in remuneration practices. We also find that, other things being equal, pay is lower in units with a high proportion of females. The last article examines the mechanisms that may lead to gender differences in access to ‘market supplements’ among professors. The process of awarding pay in excess for the amounts provided for in a collective agreement are examined based on interviews with 17 administrators at all hierarchical levels and in various academic units. Results suggest that gender differences in the likelihood of receiving an award may be related to specific features of the award process and to an unequal distribution of awards to units with strong female representation. Overall, the results show that the gender pay gap among professors at this university is not entirely accounted for by differences in the individual characteristics of male and female professors. The analysis reveals that the pay gap resides in gender differences in access to market supplements and Canada research chairs (CRCs) and, to a lesser extent, to the full professor rank. No difference is found on base pay or on the amounts of pay supplements received, whether they are “market” premiums or supplements associated to a CRC. Furthermore, pay tends to be lower in units where female representation is highest. The observed gender differences in access to market supplements could be due to organizational processes that reduce the likelihood of awards to women. There are several reasons why female faculty members are particularly disadvantaged in this award system. Gender differences in the propensity or ability to negotiate are alleged (and assumed) by some of those negotiating. More limited access to information about supplements reduces the likelihood that women will pursue them. Chairpersons, who are mostly males, may allow gender bias to influence their evaluations of faculty members, perhaps because they tend to favor others like themselves. It may also be that chairpersons from the units where women are better represented do not have access to information about market supplements or that disciplinary traditions make them reluctant to request them.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:29:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-08-22Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T21:00:16Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 campos_lr_me_sjrp.pdf: 696640 bytes, checksum: 9fd8fdc49f20d3c0d98f77a5b2b314c5 (MD5) / Este trabalho teve como objetivo realizar uma análise comparativa entre duas obras literárias que têm como foco a questão da representação literária feminina. Ao analisar os textos Carmilla (1872), de Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu, e Sabella (1980), de Tanith Lee, buscamos apontar alguns traços comuns característicos quanto às descrições das personagens femininas e as posturas que assumem diante da sociedade na qual estão inseridas, a fim de encontrar alguns possíveis aspectos norteadores para a construção da identidade feminina literária. A partir de um olhar mais aprofundado para as personagens-título Carmilla e Sabella — ambas vampiras e representativas de dois momentos distintos da literatura de ficção inglesa — retratamos os contextos histórico-sociais em que os autores se inserem. A análise baseou-se em algumas teorias feministas desenvolvidas e disseminadas ao longo dos anos 70 e 80, que visam discutir os novos posicionamentos da mulher dentro de contextos sociais até então “proibidos”, tais como trabalho, política e sexualidade. Interagimos também com textos que relacionam a representação social da mulher ligada à figura mitológica do vampiro – representação essa diretamente associadas às transformações emocionais que tratam do embate primitivo do bem vs. o mal. / The aim of this study was to make a comparative analysis focusing on the female literary representations present in two English novels. Through the study of the novels Carmilla (1872), by Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu, and Sabella (1980), by Tanith Lee, we examined the main common characteristics from female characters and their attitudes within the society to which they belong, and with the purpose of finding some possible points leading to a literary female identity construction. From a deep contact with the title-characters Carmilla and Sabella – both female vampires and also representatives of distinct English literary fiction periods – we depict the social-historical contexts to which each author belongs. The analysis is based on some feminist theories developed and propagated along of the 70’s and the 80’s, which discuss the new places occupied by women in social contexts so far known as “banned”, like out-of-house works, politics and sexuality. We also interact with texts related to social female representations linked to the mythological vampire figure – a kind of representation directly associated to some emotional transformations dealing with the primitive opposition between good vs. evil.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T16:19:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Cibele de Guadalupe Sousa.pdf: 1077694 bytes, checksum: 7fe393d9dabe3fdf71dd50e0dd5b4f0f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-12-15 / The aim of this research and of the dissertation from it is the analysis of the fictional work of Yvone Vera, a prominent writer from Zimbabwe. Incribed in the African literature written in English, her works are well known and studied internationally, and they have been translated into many idioms such as Spanish, French, Italian and German. However, this work is not very known in Brazil. Therefore, this study observe the author´s treatment of cultural, social, political and gender questions, in a period that comprehend almost a century of the Zimbabwean history, since the intensification of the colonizer occupation and the First Chimurenga (the liberation movement) until the period after the Second Chimurenga (the war for indepence), after 1980. The main focus of the dissertation is the study of the feminine representation in Vera s work, as it appear in her short-story collection Why Don t You Carve Other Animals? (1993), and in her novels Nehanda (1993), Without a Name (1994), Under the Tongue (1996), Butterfly Burning (1998), The Stone Virgins (2002): the construction of the feminine identity, the struggle for women´s emancipation, the position of women in the colonial society and in the fight for the liberation of the country from the colonial Power, as well as the difference introduced by the independence of the country in the lives of Zimbawean women. / O objetivo desta pesquisa e da dissertação dela resultante é a análise da obra ficcional de Yvone Vera, proeminente escritora do Zimbábue. Inscritos na literatura africana de língua inglesa, seus trabalhos são bem divulgados e estudados internacionalmente, contando com traduções em diversos idiomas como o espanhol, o francês, o italiano e o alemão. Todavia, essa obra é ainda pouco difundida no Brasil. Assim, este estudo observa o tratamento dado pela autora às questões culturais, sócio-políticas e de gênero, num período que cobre praticamente um século da história do Zimbábue, desde a intensificação da ocupação colonizadora e a Primeira Chimurenga (movimento de libertação) até o período posterior à Segunda Chimurenga (guerra pela independência), depois de 1980. O foco principal da dissertação é o estudo da representação do feminino na obra de Vera, tal como aparece na coletânea de contos Why Don t You Carve Other Animals? (1992) e nos romances Nehanda (1993), Without a Name (1994), Under the Tongue (1996), Butterfly Burning (1998), The Stone Virgins (2002): a construção da identidade feminina, a luta pela emancipação da mulher na sociedade colonial e na luta pela libertação do país do poder colonial, assim como a diferença introduzida pela independência na vida das mulheres do Zimbábue.

In this qualitative text analysis paper the author examined how the Swedish Green party, the Moderate party, the Christian Democrats and the Swedish Social Democratic party described female representation during the years 2001-2013 at their party congresses. With party strategic categories constructed by Lena Wägnerud and one self-constructed category with the help of works by Ann Phillips a total of 5 categories was used to separate the different statements regarding female representation. The categories were attack, win voters, comparisons, bragging and other. The results of the study show that the focus of female representation has shifted from a focus on female political representation to female representation in the business world, mostly representation in the board rooms. The results also show that all parties express themselves about female representation but in different ways. The Swedish Social Democratic party is the only party that focuses mainly on female representation as a question of justice and democracy, statements that fall under the category other. The other parties in this paper all had their focus on strategic statements that fall under Lena Wägneruds categories.

Diese Dissertation umfasst vier Aufsätze welche die Effekte von nicht-zufälliger Selektion betrachten. Im ersten Aufsatz wird analysiert welche Rolle die geänderte Zusammensetzung der Erwerbsbevölkerung für die Entwicklung der Lohnungleichheit spielt. Vollzeit-Erwerbstätige weisen zunehmend Episoden von Teilzeitarbeit und Erwerbsunterbrechungen in ihren Biographien auf. Dies hat maßgeblich zum Anstieg der Lohnungleichheit beigetragen. Der zweite Aufsatz betrachtet die Effekte von gesunkener Arbeitslosigkeit auf Lohnungleichheit.. Wenn sich die Selektion in Vollzeit oder Arbeitslosigkeit ändert, kann dies zu steigender Lohnungleichheit führen. Dies ist insbesondere dann der Fall wenn Personen neu in Beschäftigung kommen, die eine Negativauswahl der Erwerbsbevölkerung sind. Jedoch zeigt sich, als Resultat einer Analyse mit selektionskorrigierten Quantilsregressionen, dass diese veränderte Selektion nicht zum Anstieg der Lohnungleichheit beigetragen hat. Im dritten Aufsatz geht es um nicht-monotone Selektion bei Regression Discontinuity Designs (RDD). Die Annahmen, auf welchen RDDs beruhen, können verletzt sein wenn sich sowohl Individuen in die Maßnahmengruppe hinein, als auch aus ihr heraus selektieren. Der Aufsatz beschreibt diesen Selektionsmechanismus und zeigt seine praktische Relevanz. Zudem wird ein Spezifikationstest vorgestellt um das Problem im Vorfeld der Analyse zu erkennen. Der vierte Aufsatz untersucht Wählerpräferenzen für das Geschlecht politischer Kandidaten. Es wird analysiert ob das Zusammenspiel von Berufsinformationen und Geschlecht die geringere Repräsentation von Frauen erklären kann. Dazu wurde ein Feldexperiment durchgeführt. Es zeigt sich dass weibliche Kandidaten einen Stimmvorteil genießen solange keine Berufsinformationen angegeben sind. Sobald jedoch die Berufe der Kandidaten bekannt sind kehrt sich dies in einen Stimmvorteil für männliche Kandidaten um. / This thesis comprises four essays which study effects of non-random selection. The first essay analyzes the role of changes in labor force composition for the development of wage inequality among full-time workers. Of particular interest are the effects of increasingly common episodes of temporary part-time work and nonemployment among full-time workers. Such episodes, have contributed substantially to the rise in wage inequality. The second essay studies the effects of declining unemployment on inequality of wages. Changing selection over time between unemployment and full-time work could lead to increasingly diverse wages, particularly if sinking unemployment implies an influx of negatively selected workers into employment. However, results from a selection corrected quantile regression approach show that changing selection with respect to unobservables is not a contributor to the rise in wage inequality. The third essay studies non-monotonic selection in regression discontinuity designs (RDD). When similar numbers of individual select into and out of treatment simultaneously, the identifying assumption of the RDD can be violated. The essay describes the selection mechanisms and demonstrates it’s practical relevance. It then suggests an enhancement to the standard specification tests for RDDs, which can detect non-monotonic sorting in advance. The fourth essay studies voter’s valuation of candidate gender. It examines whether the presence of profession information coupled with voter preferences for stereotypical male occupations may explain part of the gender gap in parliaments. The analysis is conducted as a field experiment built into an exit-poll of voters in Germany in 2014. The results show a vote share bonus for women in the absence of profession information. Once voters know the profession of candidates, however, this changes towards a small edge for male candidates.

Titel: Valberedningen: dolda makthavare och kontrollägarens andra hand - En studie om kontrollägarens inflytande i svenska valberedningar och deras påverkan på styrelsens sammansättning Bakgrund: Tidigare forskning undersöker hur olika individuella egenskaper hos valberedningens ledamöter påverkar styrelsens sammansättning genom homosocial reproduktion. Utifrån att bolagens kontrollägare i flertalet fall finns representerad i valberedningen finns det möjligheter att även kontrollägarens närvaro har betydelse för vilka styrelsemedlemmar som nomineras. Vem kontrollägaren är och vilka intressen, mål och egenskaper denna ägare har kan vara en påverkande faktor för styrelsens sammansättning samtidigt som kontrollägarens formella maktposition skulle kunna påverkas av en eventuell informell makt som valberedningens övriga ledamöter besitter. Syfte: Studien syftar till att undersöka vilken effekt kontrollägarens representation i valberedningen får på den kvinnliga representationen i svenska börsbolags styrelser. Metod: En kvantitativ studie som tillämpar en deduktiv forskningsansats. Studiens urval baseras på noterade bolag på Stockholmsbörsens small, mid och large cap där information har inhämtats från databasen Holdings samt börsbolagens årsredovisningar och hemsidor. Slutsatser: Studien visar på tre slutsatser utifrån de empiriska resultaten. (1) Studien visar att kontrollägarens representation i valberedningen kan ge olika effekt på den kvinnliga representationen i styrelse utifrån sin ägaridentitet, vilket skulle kunna förklaras av ägarens tillgång till nätverk, institutionella känslighet eller villighet att premiera kvinnor. (2) Därmed är valberedningens sammansättning av betydelse för den kvinnliga representationen i styrelsen. (3) Institutionella ägare bör inte kategoriseras som en gemensam ägaridentitet i detta forskningsavseende då de empiriska resultaten visar på separata effekter på den kvinnliga representationen i styrelsens. / Title: Nomination committees: the hidden ruler and the control owners second hand - A study about the control owner's influence in Swedish nomination committees and their impact on the composition of the board Background: Previous research examines how different individual characteristics of the Nomination Committee's members affect the composition of the board through homosocial reproduction. Based on the fact that the company's control owners in most cases are represented in the nomination committee, there are possibilities that the control owner's presence also has a significant meaning for which board members that are nominated. Who the control owner is and what interests, goals and characteristics they have as an owner, can be an influencing factor for the composition of the board, while the control owner's formal position of power can be affected by an informal power on behalf of other members in the nomination committee. Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine the effect of the control owner's representation in the nomination committee on female representation on the boards of Swedish listed companies. Method: A quantitative study that applies a deductive research approach. The study's selection consists of listed companies on the Stockholm Stock Exchange's small, mid and large cap. Information have been collected from the database Holdings and the stock companies' annual reports and websites. Conclusions: The study shows three conclusions based on the empirical results. (1) The study shows that the control owner's representation in the nomination committee can have different effects on the female representation on the board based on their owner identity, which could be explained by the owner's access to networks, institutional sensitivity or willingness to nominate women. (2) Thus, the composition of the nomination committee is of importance for the female representation on the board. (3) Institutional owners should not be categorized under a common ownership identity in this research area, as the empirical results show separate effects on the female representation on the board.

Actualmente, el Perú presenta una marcada tendencia hacia la falta de visibilización y conocimiento de la participación de la mujer en la industria creativa. En consecuencia, existe la necesidad de visibilizar a estas mujeres y su importante rol dentro del área del diseño gráfico en el país. El presente proyecto consiste en la elaboración de una obra editorial que tiene como objetivo mostrar la visión de quince diseñadoras gráficas peruanas de tres generaciones distintas. Para la producción del contenido, se conversó con diferentes mujeres fundadoras de estudios de diseño, diseñadoras influyentes y mujeres jóvenes con una percepción nueva respecto al rubro. Estas mujeres; a través de extensas entrevistas dan a conocer sus experiencias y perspectivas sobre lo que significa ser mujer y diseñadora en el Perú, y cómo se está estableciendo la profesión a nivel local. El reto consiste en diseñar un libro que muestre la visión de estas mujeres sin caer en recursos gráficos recurrentes o estereotipos negativos sobre lo femenino. Asimismo, exponer a los lectores estas perspectivas para que complementen su desarrollo profesional y académico. La producción de esta obra editorial responde a los conocimientos teóricos y prácticos que se obtienen como resultado de una profunda investigación que se recopila en el marco teórico de la presente memoria profesional. Este libro se expone, no solo bajo conceptos del diseño editorial, sino además bajo un plano semiótico del diseño. Ambos campos de estudio brindan claridad para un desarrollo eficaz de la publicación que responde a los objetivos del proyecto. / Nowadays, Peru presents a marked tendency towards the Invisibilization and lack of knowledge reggarding the participation of women in the creative industry. In consequence, there is a need to make these women visible and show their important role in the area of graphic design in the country. This project consists of the development of an editorial piece which objective is to show the vision of fifteen Peruvian female graphic designers from three different generations. To obtain the content, we spoke with women at the head of design studios, influential women designers, and young women with a new and particular take on the field. Through extensive interviews, they share their experience and perspective on being a woman and designer inPeru, the social approach of graphic design, and how the profession is establishing itself locally. The challenge of the project is to design a book that shares these women’s vision without recurring tostereotypical graphic resources related to femininity while exposing readers to them and complement their professional and academic development. The production of the editorial piece responds to theorical and practical knowledge obtained through indepth investigation that is compiled within the theorical framework of this professional report. This book presents itself, not only under editorial design concepts but also under a semiotic design plan. Both fields provide clarity for an effective and coherent development of the publication that responds to the objectives of the project. / Trabajo de Suficiencia Profesional

This essay aims to analyse how the exposedness is constructed in the Swedish contemporary artist Nathalie Djurberg’s two stop motion-films Greed and Cave. Five stills from Greed and three stills from Cave will be examined from a feminist perspective with a theoretical viewpoint based on theories from both art history and film studies. The method applied is visual semiotics which focuses on how meaning is created within an artwork rather than what the meaning is. The stills from Djurberg’s films are analysed first on a denotative level and then on a connotative level. Furthermore, visual semiotics theorises that everything is made up of systems of signs which allows this essay to study how the women in Djurberg’s movies functions as signs. The essay demonstrated that the women in Djurberg’s films can be seen as passive objects under the power of the male gaze. However, the analysis also displayed that the woman in Cave can be perceived as someone who defies the patriarchal norms for how a woman should behave and look. Nonetheless, the exposedness of these women seems to be constructed firstly in their bodies and how they are represented, both in looks but also how they are posed to reinforce patriarchal conventions in the female representation, and secondly in their relation to male characters - or the implied male gaze from a spectator - in the films. The women in Djurberg’s films can thus be understood as signs for male sexual desires, as signs for the Woman posing as the Man’s opposite, as the objective for His gaze.